Large copper - WikiHQ

Large copper (Lycaena dispar) is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. Lycaena dispar is widely distributed across temperate Eurasia from western Europe to the Amur region, Korea and Manchuria. While it is currently in severe decline in north-western Europe, it is expanding in central, northern and eastern regions.

Three European subspecies are commonly recognized: L. dispar dispar (single-brooded), the now-extinct English subspecies; L. d. batavus (usually single-brooded), the Dutch subspecies; and L. d. rutilus (double-brooded), which is widespread across the rest of the continent. The species exhibits strong sexual dimorphism. Males have bright orange wings with narrow black margins and white fringes. The short androconia (sex brands) are located near the leading edge of the forewing. Females have broader dark brown margins on the forewings with a parallel row of dark spots.

Both sexes have distinctive silvery-blue hindwing undersides patterned with black spots and an orange submarginal band. This silvery underside distinguishes L. dispar from related species such as Lycaena virgaureae and L. hippothoe, which inhabit drier environments.

The subspecies can be differentiated by size, extent of black markings, and the length of the orange band on the hindwing underside. The extinct English subspecies (L. d. dispar) was notably variable in size and had larger spots on the underside than continental European forms.

(MHNT) Lycaena dispar - Kašėtos - Lithuania - male dorsal.jpg |Lycaena dispar ♂

(MHNT) Lycaena dispar - Kašėtos - Lithuania - male ventral.jpg |Lycaena dispar ♂ △

(MHNT) Lycaena dispar - Kaunas - Lithuania - female dorsal.jpg|Lycaena dispar ♀

(MHNT) Lycaena dispar - Kaunas - Lithuania - female ventral.jpg |Lycaena dispar ♀ △

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Subspecies

L. d. dispar (Haworth, 1802) – England – extinct since 1864
L. d. batavus (Oberthür, 1923) – Netherlands
L. d. rutilus (Werneberg, 1864) – Central and southern Europe, Caucasus, Transcaucasia
L. d. festiva Krulikowsky, 1909 – Ural, western Siberia
L. d. dahurica (Graeser, 1888) – Transbaikalia, western Amur
L. d. aurata Leech, 1887 – Siberia, eastern Amur, Ussuri
L. d. borodowskyi Grum-Grshimailo, 1900 – Manchuria

Genetic diversity and phylogeography

European populations show distinct genetic structuring based on mitochondrial DNA analysis. A 2004 study identified ten distinct haplotypes across the continent, with populations from northern and central regions sharing close genetic relationships. This pattern indicates these populations likely descended from ancestors that recolonized northward from south-eastern European refugia following the last glacial period. Geographic analysis reveals that range expansion events have been the primary driver shaping current genetic distribution patterns.

Distribution and populations

Current range

Lycaena dispar occurs between latitudes 40° and 60° across Eurasia.

The species shows contrasting population trends across its range: severe decline in north-western Europe, stability or expansion in central and northern Europe, and mixed status in Asia.

Northern Europe

Estonia represents the species' northern range expansion. Absent until the 20th century, L. dispar was first recorded near Tartu in 1947.

Southern Europe

The species' range extends south to Mount Olympus in Greece, where it was observed in July 2011. Southern populations may produce a partial third generation in favourable conditions. The species prefers undisturbed grasslands along riverbanks and stream banks, particularly areas with its larval food plants.

Additional confirmed host plants include R. aquaticus, R. conglomeratus, R. patientia, R. sanguineus and R. stenophyllus.

Life cycle

Most European populations are bivoltine with two generations annually: May–June and late July–early September, with peak flight in July. Larvae resume feeding in early May when temperatures exceed 25°C. Heavy mortality occurs during the overwintering period, particularly from prolonged flooding. Eggs are laid on sunny host plants in optimal microclimates. Herbivore damage and fungal infections on host plants do not significantly affect oviposition choices. This parasitoid may be a factor limiting abundance of L. dispar populations. The butterfly was once common in several English fenland localities including Whittlesea Mere, using food-plant Rumex hydrolapathum.

Drainage of the fens for agriculture led to rapid population decline:

1820: 50+ specimens could be collected easily; market price 3-4 shillings per dozen
1845: Rapid decrease noted in Cambridgeshire
1847: Last five specimens caught in Huntingdonshire
1864: Species declared extinct in Britain.

The value of specimens increased dramatically post-extinction:

1870s: 20 shillings per specimen
1893: London auction averaged 90 shillings per specimen (31 specimens sold for £139)
1902: Average £5 per specimen, with one female fetching £7.

Reintroduction attempts

Multiple reintroduction attempts have been made:

1909: G. H. Verbal released caterpillars of L. d. rutilus at Wicken Fen, Cambridgeshire – failed due to lack of suitable host plants
1913: Edward Bagwell Purefoy established L. d. rutilus colony in Tipperary, Ireland – temporarily successful