Landing Ship, Tank

thumb| A [[Canada|Canadian LST off-loads an M4 Sherman during the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943.]]

A Landing Ship, Tank (LST) is a type of amphibious warfare ship class designed to support amphibious operations by carrying tanks along with other military vehicles, cargo and landing troops directly onto a low-slope beach with no docks or piers. The LSTs first developed during World War Il and modern LSTs of different classes are now being built and used by several militaries. The shallow draft and bow doors and ramps enabled amphibious assaults on almost any beach. In peacetime, LSTs can serve in secondary missions such as humanitarian aid, disaster relief, medical assistance and transportation.

The LST had a highly specialized design that enabled ocean crossings as well as shore groundings. The bow had a large door that could open, deploy a ramp and unload vehicles. The LST had a flat keel that allowed the ship to be beached and stay upright. The twin propellers and rudders had protection from grounding. The LSTs served across the globe during World War II, including in the Pacific War and in the European theater.

The first tank landing ships were built to British requirements by converting existing ships; the UK and the US then collaborated upon a joint design. The British ships were used in late 1942 during the Allied invasion of Algeria. In 1943, LSTs participated in the invasion of Sicily and mainland Italy. In June 1944 they were part of the huge invasion fleet for the Normandy landings.

Over 1,000 LSTs were laid down in the United States during World War II for use by the Allies; the United Kingdom and Canada produced eighty more.

Design

thumb|Technical drawing of a U.S. Navy World War II-tank landing ship

thumb|Turkish [[Bayraktar-class tank landing ship|Bayraktar-class LSTs equipped with modern sensors such as SMART-S Mk2 radar and armaments such as CIWS and RCWS along with aviation facilities]]

thumb|Inside of the Russian Ivan Gren-class LST

The fundamental design of the Landing Ship, Tank (LST) was born out of a contradictory set of operational requirements: the vessel needed to be highly seaworthy to cross oceans, yet possess a sufficiently shallow draft to deliver heavy armor and personnel directly onto unimproved beaches. To resolve this, early LST designers, notably John C. Niedermair of the United States Navy Bureau of Ships, developed a specialized ballast system. By flooding extensive ballast tanks, the ship could achieve a deep draft for stability during ocean transits; upon approaching a landing site, the water was rapidly pumped out, allowing the flat-bottomed hull to ride high in the water and safely run aground. The internal architecture was centered around a continuous tank deck that ran the length of the vessel, reinforced to support the weight of heavy battle tanks and mechanized equipment.

Some prominent examples of contemporary modern LST designs are the Turkish-built Bayraktar-class tank landing ship developed by the Anadolu Shipyard (ADIK) for the Turkish Naval Forces, and the Ivan Gren-class landing ship developed for the Russian Navy.

Unlike their World War II predecessors, the Bayraktar-class vessels (TCG Bayraktar and TCG Sancaktar) are designed with a monohull constructed of AH-36 high-tensile steel and incorporate modern stealth characteristics to reduce their radar cross-section. The Turkish LST design significantly expands on traditional amphibious assault capabilities. Measuring nearly 139 meters (456 ft) in length with a displacement of 7,254 tonnes, the Bayraktar-class features both an upper and lower Ro-Ro deck capable of carrying up to 1,200 tons of varied cargo, including main battle tanks, amphibious vehicles, and up to 350 fully equipped marines. Other LSTs, provided with extra cranes and handling gear, were used exclusively for replenishing ammunition. They possessed a special advantage in this role, as their size permitted two or three LSTs to go simultaneously alongside an anchored battleship or cruiser to accomplish replenishment more rapidly than standard ammunition ships.

Three LST (2) were converted into British "Fighter Direction Tenders" (FDT), swapping their landing craft for Motor Launches and outfitted with AMES Type 11 and Type 15 fighter control radar to provide Ground-controlled interception (GCI) coverage for air defence of the D-Day landing areas. Of these ships, HMS FDT 216 was stationed off Omaha and Utah beaches, HMS FDT 217 was allocated Sword, Juno, and Gold beaches. HMS FDT 13 was used for coverage of the overall main shipping channel. In the period 6 June to 26 June Allied fighters controlled by the FDTs resulted in the destruction of 52 enemy aircraft by day, and 24 enemy aircraft by night.

LST flight decks

thumb|left|USS LST-906, with US Army Air Force L-4 Grasshopper on her flight deck being prepared for take-off. Note additional L-4 type aircraft stowed alongside the deck.

thumb|USS LST-776 with Brodie system front view during testing 1943

In the latter stages of World War II, some LSTs were fitted with flight decks that could launch small observation planes during amphibious operations. These were USS LST-16, USS LST-337, USS LST-386, USS LST-525, LST-776, and . Two others (USS LST-393 and USS LST-776) were fitted with the Brodie System for take off and landing.

It has been estimated that, in the combined fleets assembled for the war on Japan, the tonnage of landing ships, excluding landing craft, would have exceeded five million tons and nearly all built within four years.

Throughout the war, LSTs demonstrated a remarkable capacity to absorb punishment and survive. Despite the sobriquets "Large Slow Target" and "Large Stationary Target", which were applied to them by crew members, the LSTs suffered few losses in proportion to their number and the scope of their operations. Their brilliantly conceived structural arrangement provided unusual strength and buoyancy; was struck and holed in a post-war collision with a Victory ship and survived. Although the LST was considered a valuable target by the enemy, only 26 were lost due to enemy action, and a mere 13 were the victims of weather, reef, or accident.

A total of 1,152 LSTs were contracted for in the great naval building program of World War II, but 101 were cancelled in the fall of 1942 because of shifting construction priorities. Of 1,051 actually constructed, 113 LSTs were transferred to Britain under the terms of Lend-Lease, and four more were turned over to the Greek Navy. Conversions to other ship types with different hull designations accounted for 116: 6 Miscellaneous Ships (AG), 14 Motor Torpedo Boat Tenders (AGP), 7 Self-Propelled Barracks Ships or “hotels" (APB), 13 Battle Damage Repair Ships (ARB), 39 Landing Craft Repair Ships (ARL), 3 Salvage Craft Tenders (ARST), 4 Aircraft Repair Ships (ARVA, ARVE), 1 Advance Aviation Base Ship (AVB), 4 Unclassified miscellaneous vessels (IX), and 36 LSTH. One LST which had been sunk in an accident was later raised and converted into a Covered Barge (YF).

History of early post-war developments

United States

thumb|left|LST arrives at Rongerik Atoll in March 1946

The end of World War II left the Navy with a huge inventory of amphibious ships. Hundreds of these were scrapped or sunk, and most of the remaining ships were put in "mothballs" to be preserved for the future. Additionally, many of the LSTs were demilitarized and sold to the private sector, along with thousands of other transport ships, contributing to a major downturn in shipbuilding in the United States following the war. Many LSTs were used as targets in aquatic nuclear testing after the war, being readily available and serving no apparent military applications. World War II era LSTs have become somewhat ubiquitous, and have found a number of novel commercial uses, including operating as small freighters, ferries, living quarters and dredges. Consequently, construction of LSTs in the immediate post-war years was modest. LST-1153 and LST-1154, commissioned respectively in 1947 and 1949, were the only steam-driven LSTs ever built by the Navy. They provided improved berthing arrangements and a greater cargo capacity than their predecessors.

thumb|[[USS Dunn County (LST-742)|USS LST-742 on 13 October 1950 at Wolmi-do island, Incheon Harbor, South Korea, loading supplies for the upcoming Wonsan invasion]]

The success of the amphibious assault at Inchon during the Korean War showed the utility of LSTs once again. This was in contrast with the earlier opinion expressed by many military authorities that the advent of the atomic bomb had relegated amphibious landings to a thing of the past. During the Korean War a number of LSTs were converted to transport the much needed, but slow and short range LSU from the United States to the Korean theater of war using the piggy-back method. After arrival the LSU was slid off sideways from the LST. Additionally, LSTs were used for transport in the building of an Air Force base at Thule, Greenland during the Korean War. Fifteen LSTs of what were later to be known as the Terrebonne Parish class were constructed in the early 1950s. These new LSTs were longer and were equipped with four, rather than two, diesel engines, which increased their speed to . Three-inch / 50-caliber twin mounts replaced the old twin 40 mm guns, and controllable pitch propellers improved the ship's backing power. On 1 July 1955, county or, in the case of Louisiana, parish names were assigned to many LSTs, which up to then had borne only a letter-number hull designation.

In the late 1950s, seven LSTs of the De Soto County class were constructed. These were an improved version over earlier LSTs, with a high degree of habitability for the crew and embarked troops. Considered the "ultimate" design attainable with the traditional LST bow door configuration, they were capable of .

United Kingdom

Commercial ferry use

In 1946, a brand new concept of transport was developed in the UK. During World War II, the great potential of landing ships and craft was recognised; if it was possible to drive tanks, guns and lorries directly onto a beach, then theoretically the same landing craft could be used to carry out a similar operation in the civilian commercial market, providing there were reasonable port facilities. From this idea grew the worldwide roll-on/roll-off ferry industry. In the period between the world wars, Lt. Colonel Frank Bustard formed the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company, with a view to cheap transatlantic travel. This never materialised, but he observed trials on Brighton Sands of a LST in 1943 when its peacetime capabilities were obvious.

In the spring of 1946, the company approached the Admiralty with a request to purchase three of these vessels. The Admiralty was unwilling to sell, but after negotiations agreed to let the ASN have the use of three vessels on bareboat charter at a rate of £13 6s 8d per day. These vessels were LSTs 3519, 3534, and 3512. They were renamed Empire Baltic, , and , perpetuating the name of White Star Line ships in combination with the "Empire" ship naming of vessels in government service during the war.

The chartered vessels had to be adapted for their new role. First the accommodation on board had to be improved, and alterations in the engine and boiler rooms had also to be made. Modified funnels and navigational aids needed to be provided before they could enter service. On the morning of 11 September 1946, the first voyage of the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company took place when Empire Baltic sailed from Tilbury to Rotterdam with a full load of 64 vehicles for the Dutch government. On arrival at Waalhaven, the vessel beached using the method employed during wartime landings, being held by a stern anchor. The vessel stayed on the beach overnight, returning at 08:00 the next morning. This leisurely pace of work was followed for the first few voyages, the beach being employed possibly because normal port facilities were unavailable due to wartime damage. Following the initial Rotterdam voyage, ASN used their new vessels to transfer thousands of vehicles for the British Army from Tilbury to Hamburg, and later to Antwerp in 1955.

The original three LSTs were joined in 1948 by another vessel, , renamed Empire Doric, after the ASN were able to convince commercial operators to support the new route between Preston Dock in Lancashire and the Northern Ireland port of Larne. Originally Liverpool was chosen, but opposition from other operators led to a move to Lancashire. However, special port facilities had to be constructed at both Preston and Larne before the new route could be opened – a wartime end-loading ramp built by engineers during World War II at Preston, and a floating pontoon from a Mulberry harbour connected via a bridge to the quay at Larne.

The first sailing of this new route was on 21 May 1948 by Empire Cedric. After the inaugural sailing, Empire Cedric continued on the Northern Ireland service, offering initially a twice-weekly service. Empire Cedric was the first vessel of the ASN fleet to hold a Passenger Certificate, and was allowed to carry fifty passengers. Thus Empire Cedric became the first vessel in the world to operate as a commercial/passenger roll-on/roll-off ferry, and the ASN became the first company to offer this type of service.

Some of the first cargo on this service were two lorry-loads of 65 gas cookers each on behalf of Moffats of Blackburn, believed to be the first commercial vehicles carried in this way as freight. The Preston–Larne service continued to expand, so much so that in 1950 it added a route to Belfast. This service opened in 1950, and sailings out of Preston were soon increased to six or seven a week to either Belfast or Larne.

In 1954, the British Transport Commission (BTC) took over the ASN under the Labour government's nationalization policy. In 1955, another two LSTs were chartered into the existing fleet, and , bringing the fleet strength to seven. The Hamburg service was terminated in 1955, and a new service was opened between Antwerp and Tilbury. The fleet of seven ships was to be split up, with the usual three ships based at Tilbury and the others maintaining the Preston to Northern Ireland service.

During late 1956, the entire fleet of ASN was taken over for use in the Mediterranean during the Suez Crisis, and the drive on/drive off services were not re-established until January 1957. At this point ASN were made responsible for the management of twelve Admiralty LST (3)s brought out of reserve as a result of the Suez Crisis, though too late to see service.

Army service

A major task at the end of World War II was the redistribution of stores and equipment worldwide. Due to the scarcity and expense of merchant shipping it was decided in 1946 that the Royal Army Service Corps civilian fleet should take over seven LSTs from the Royal Navy. These were named after distinguished corps officers: Evan Gibb, Charles Macleod, Maxwell Brander, Snowden Smith, Humfrey Gale, Reginald Kerr, and Fredrick Glover.

The LSTs needed to comply with Board of Trade regulations, and to be brought up to merchant navy standards, which involved lengthy alterations including extra accommodation. On completion, five vessels sailed for the Middle East, and two for the Far East.

During the evacuation of Mandatory Palestine, Humfrey Gale and Evan Gibb made fifteen voyages each between Haifa and Port Said lifting between them 26,000 tons of vehicles and stores.

Similar work was done worldwide until 1952 when the ships were handed over to the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company, and subsequently in 1961 to the British-India Steam Navigation Company, tasked by the War Office directly, RASC having no further concern with their administration.

Aviation training

The rapid increase in the use of helicopters in the Royal Navy in the late 1950s and 1960s required an increase in the training and support facilities ashore and afloat. Operational training for aircrew was carried out by naval air stations at Portland and Culdrose. The scrapping of some carriers and conversion of others to commando carriers in the mid-1950s left a shortage of suitable decks. This led to the ordering of in 1964; however, she would not be available till 1967. In the meantime it was decided to convert LST 3027 to serve as an interim training ship.

This work was carried out at Devonport Dockyard in 1964. The deck forward of the cargo hatch was cleared of all obstructions, and strengthened for helicopter use. A small deckhouse used to support the gun emplacements was retained, although no guns were fitted, and it was used by the Flight Deck Officer as a helicopter control position. Below deck, two aviation fuel tanks were installed at the fore end of the tank deck, and refuelling positions provided at the fore end of the flight deck. The tanks were sealed off by a bulkhead and the rest of the space used for stores, workshops and accommodation. Finally the bow doors were sealed, as they would no longer be needed. The flight deck was large enough for two Westland Wessex helicopters with rotors turning, or six could be parked with rotors folded. Renamed she proved extremely useful in service, and many lessons were learned that would be incorporated into Engadine.

Netherlands

After World War II, the Royal Netherlands Navy used three borrowed LST Mk.3s to transport soldiers and material in the Dutch East Indies.

Modern developments

thumb|Chinese Type 072A LCT

right|thumb| at sea. The Newport-class ships can debark amphibious vehicles from stern gates or the bow ramp.

The commissioning of the in 1969 marked the introduction of an entirely new concept in the design of LSTs. She was the first of a new class of 20 LSTs capable of steaming at a sustained speed of . To obtain that speed, the traditional blunt bow doors of the LST were replaced by a pointed ship bow. Unloading is accomplished through the use of a ramp operated over the bow (similar in concept to the original HMS Boxer) and supported by twin derrick arms. A stern gate to the tank deck permits unloading of LVTs into the water or the unloading of other vehicles into a landing craft utility (LCU) or onto a pier. Capable of operating with high-speed amphibious squadrons consisting of LHAs, LPDs, and LSDs, the Newport-class LST can transport tanks, other heavy vehicles, and engineering equipment that cannot readily be landed by helicopters or landing craft. The Newport type were removed from U.S. Navy service in the 1990s, and Spanish Navy, Chile, Australia, and Malaysia but serves on in the navies of Brazil, Mexico, Morocco, Taiwan, in a modified form and soon with Peru.

Elsewhere, over 100 Polish s were produced from 1967 to 2002. The Indian Navy maintained a fleet of seven Polnocny-class LSTs and LCUs known collectively as the till 2024.

Operators

operates two s.
operates six s.
operates one , purchased from the United Kingdom.
operates two s, purchased from France.
operates, 12 Yuhai-class landing ships, 10 Yubei-class landing ships, 10 Yunshu-class landing ships, 1 Yudeng-class landing ship, 4 Yuting-class landing ships, 10 Yuting II-class landing ships, and 15 Yuting III-class landing ships.
operates 2 s and 4 s, all purchased from the United States.
operates a single , purchased from France.
operates two s.
operates a single , purchased from the United States.
operates three s.
operates one .
operates five s.
operates one <nowiki/>s, three <nowiki/>s.
operates nine <nowiki/>s, 11 <nowiki/>s, four <nowiki/>s, and an post-war Japanese-built LST-542-class tank landing ship.
operates four s and four s.
Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Navy operates three s and two s.
operates two s.
operates four s and four s.
operates one .
operates three s, purchased from France.
operates the SNV Nasr al Bahr
operates two s, purchased from the United States.
operates one , one , both purchased from the United States, and two s.
operates five s.
operates 12 s, two s, and two s.
operates three s.
operates two s.
operates two s and the TCG Osman Gazi
has a single , may have been destroyed.
operates three s.
operates eight s.
operates four s.
operates three s and two s, captured from South Vietnam.
operates a single .

Former operators

decommissioned its last LST, ARA Cabo San Antonio in 1997.
decommissioned its last in 2004.
decommissioned its only in 2013.
decommissioned its last in 2017.
decommissioned all its LST's following World War II.
decommissioned its only in 1998.
decommissioned its last s, following the dissolution of its navy in 1993.
decommissioned its last in 2017.
decommissioned its only in 2016.
decommissioned its 14 following German reunification.
lost its two s during the Gulf War at the Battle of Bubiyan.
decommissioned its last in 1992.
decommissioned its last in 2002.
lost its only due to a fire in 2009.
loaned three LST Mk.3s from the Royal Navy after the Second World War, which were returned in 1947. Artist McClelland Barclay was killed during the attack.
During Exercise Tiger practice for an amphibious landing on 28 April 1944, German E-boats attacked a convoy in Lyme Bay. Two LSTs were sunk by torpedoes (LST-531 and ) and two more were damaged, with 729 US army and navy personnel killed and missing.
In the West Loch disaster on 21 May 1944, exploded while moored in West Loch at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This caused explosions on other LSTs: LST-39, , , and sank, and others were damaged. The explosions killed 163 sailors and wounded 396.

Early Post-war

thumb|upright| beached at [[Vieques, Puerto Rico, in 1964]]

USS LST-52 and LST-133 were used as targets in Operation Crossroads, the atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll in July 1946.

Modern era

was sunk in 1979 as an artificial reef near the U.S. Virgin Islands.
– Vietnam People's Navy armed transport HQ-505 was sunk in 14 March 1988, during the Johnson South Reef Skirmish with China.
Novocherkassk - Russia's large LST sunk by Ukrainian attack in 2023.

World War II survivors

Indonesia

KRI Teluk Ratai (509), ex-USS LST-678, is a museum ship in Pariaman, West Sumatra
KRI Teluk Bone (511), ex-USS Iredell County (LST-839), was decommissioned by the Indonesian Navy on 15 August 2019

Philippines

The Philippine Navy received 20+ units of the LST Mk.2 starting in the late 1940s. This includes BRP Laguna (LT-501), ex-USS LST-230 and BRP Benguet (LT-507), ex-USS Daviess County (LST-692). The BRP Sierra Madre (LT-57), ex-USS Harnett County (LST-821) permanently beached on the Second Thomas Shoal. The ship serves as an advance outpost, and is currently at the center of a territorial dispute between China and the Philippines.

Singapore

RSS Resolution (L-204), ex-USS LST-649, is operated by the Republic of Singapore Navy as a training ship at Tuas Naval Base, Singapore. She was one of the five landing ships bought by Singapore on 5 December 1975 which consists of USS LST-836, , , and .

South Korea

was commissioned in 1945 and was an active ship until 2006. She served in the Okinawa campaign in May–June 1945 and earned one battle star for her service in World War II. She was transferred to the Republic of Korea Navy in 1958, commissioned as ROKS Wi Bong (LST-676), and served there until 2006. She was used to transport thousands of soldiers and their equipment from South Korea to South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. In 2007, she was decommissioned and sold to the city of Gunsan, South Korea for display in a maritime museum in a deal with the navy.

Taiwan

thumb|166x166px|ROCS Chung Yeh (LST-231)

The Republic of China Navy currently operates 3 LST-542 Class vessels and 1 LST-1 Class Vessel. All 4 ships saw service during WW2.

ROCS Chung Chien (LST-205), ex-USS LST-716, is active with the Republic of China Navy as of 2026
ROCS Chung Chie (LST-218), ex-USS Berkeley County (LST-279), is active with the Republic of China Navy as of 2026
ROCS Chung Ming (LST-227), ex-USS Sweetwater County (LST-1152), is active with the Republic of China Navy as of 2026
ROCS Chung Yeh (LST-231), ex-USS Sublette County (LST-1144), is active with the Republic of China Navy as of 2026

Thailand

HTMS Pangan (LST-713), ex-, is a museum ship in Surat Thani
HTMS Lanta (LST-714), ex-, is a museum ship in Krabi

Vietnam

Tran Khanh Du (HQ-501), ex-, had been transferred to the Republic of Vietnam Navy, and after the Fall of Saigon was captured by North Vietnamese forces. , she is active and in commission with the Vietnamese People's Navy.

United States

thumb|[[USS LST-325 as a mobile museum in La Crosse, Wisconsin]]

, ex-RHS Syros (L-144), is a museum ship in Evansville, Indiana.
is a museum ship in Muskegon, Michigan.
MV Cape Henlopen, ex-, was converted to a passenger and auto ferry and operates between New London, Connecticut, and Orient Point, on the East End of Long Island, New York.

Cultural references

Literature

Lucky, a 2017 movie about an 90 year old atheist coming to terms with his own mortality. In one scene, Lucky encounters a fellow World War II veteran and reflects on his service in the US Navy during the Pacific campaign. He reveals that he earned his nickname thanks to his relatively safe position as a cook on an LST — a vessel humorously dubbed a "Large Slow Target" by the crew.

Jonah's Cathedral by R. D. Wall, is a novel of the Vietnam War based on the author's experiences while serving on an LST in the Mekong Delta in 1966. The book, #1 in the Jonah Wynchester Series, follows the exploits of U.S. Navy Gunner's Mate Jonah Wynchester from the time he reports aboard his new assignment, the LST USS Winchester County, at the Navy Amphibious Base in Little Creek, Virginia, on New Year's Day 1966 through the time the ship departs for Vietnam. The "Cathedral" refers to the nickname the crew have given the ship, a decrepit, run-down LST in the ready reserve fleet, that is suddenly re-activated and fully manned for the rapidly expanding need for LSTs in the Vietnam theater. Book #2, "Mekong Covenant" follows the ship across the Pacific into the deadly brown waters of the Mekong Delta.

The Ninety and Nine by William Brinkley, author of Don't Go Near the Water, portrays an LST running supplies to Anzio during World War II. The title refers to the ship's company of ninety enlisted men and nine officers. The book opens with a quotation attributed to Winston Churchill – "The destinies of two great empires ... seemed to be tied by some god-damned things called LST's."

In the biography Man In Motion: Michigan's Legendary Senate Majority Leader, Emil Lockwood by Stanley C. Fedewa and Marilyn H. Fedewa, Lockwood colorfully describes his World War II service aboard LST-478. "We were always in the thick of it," Emil said, "because it was our job on the LSTs to carry personnel-operated tanks, artillery, supplies—anything, you name it—into the heart of a war zone."

The novel Warm Bodies by Donald R. Morris portrays life on an LST in the 1950s. The title refers to the use of any available body in port during overhaul for any duty necessary. "A Warm Body is man with at least one arm and two fingers who can pick up something when he is told to." Although a work of fiction, the novel is based on Morris' experience as an officer aboard an LST.

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links

HMS Misoa – Landing Ship Tank (LST)
Ship Tour LST325 in Evansville, Indiana
DANFS: Tank Landing Ships (LST)
NavSource Online: Tank Landing Ship (LST) Index
InsideLST.com – a selection of information on the construction, complement, &c of LSTs, mostly taken from LST-325
United States LST Association website
The American Amphibious Forces Association – information about later classes of LSTs
The US LST Ship Memorial – A preserved and operational LST from World War II – LST 325
LST Story Film: the building and launch of Tank Landing Ship Coconino County (LST-603) during World War II.

Design

LST flight decks

History of early post-war developments

United States

United Kingdom

Commercial ferry use

Army service

Aviation training

Netherlands

Modern developments

Operators

Former operators

Early Post-war

Modern era

World War II survivors

Indonesia

Philippines

Singapore

South Korea

Taiwan

Thailand

Vietnam

United States

Cultural references

Literature

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links