Kucha ( , also: Kuche, Kuchar, Kuçar; , Кучар; , ; ) was an ancient Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that ran along the northern edge of what is now the Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin and south of the Muzat River.
The former area of Kucha now lies in present-day Aksu Prefecture, west-central Xinjiang, China. Kuqa town is the county seat of Aksu Prefecture's Kuqa County. Its population was given as 74,632 in 1990.
Etymology
Though the history of toponyms for modern Kucha remains problematic, it is clear that Kucha (Kuchar, in Turkic languages) and Kuché (modern Chinese) both correspond to the Kushan of Indic scripts from late antiquity.
Chinese annals uniformly record the kingdom's name as 龜茲 (Qiūcí) from the Han to the Song dynasty. Its earliest attestation is in the Hanshu. Commentators indicate that the name was pronounced specifically as 丘慈 (Qiūcí, Old Chinese *kʽǐwə-dzǐə) rather than the ordinary reading Guǐzī (Old Chinese *kǐwə-tsǐə). A later 4th‑century transcription, 屈茨 (Qūcí, EMC *khut-dzi), corroborates this pronunciation.
Attested forms in other pre-Islamic languages include Niya-Gāndhārī *kuciya, Sanskrit kuci-, Kuchean , Sogdian ’kwc’, and Old Turkic küsän. instead of Küshän or Kushan. Another, cognate Chinese transliteration is Ku-sien. Both names, as well as Kos, Kucha, Kujar etc., were used for modern Kucha.
As an oasis town northward of the Taklamakan Desert, Kucha attracted travelers passing by along their journey on the Silk Road, serving as a rest stop for travelers and visitors and as a religious stronghold and political center. The Silk Road, despite its name, provided routes across Eurasia for the flow of cultures, religions, ideas, and goods and services, and Kucha played a role in this exchange. Kucha and the archaeological discoveries in the surrounding region provide insight into the city's significance during the time of the Silk Road.
Kucha during the Eastern Han Dynasty
thumb|upright=1.5|Kuchean monks and lay devotees circa 300 CE, in the paintings of the [[:Commons:Category:Cave of the Hippocampi (Cave 118)|Cave of the Hippocampi (Cave 118), Kizil Caves.]]
During the Later Han (25–220 CE), Kucha and the rest of the Tarim Basin became a focus of rivalry between the Xiongnu to the north and the Han Chinese to the east. In 74 CE, Chinese troops started to take control of the Tarim Basin with the conquest of Turfan. In the first century CE, Kucha resisted the Chinese and allied itself with the Xiongnu and the Yuezhi against the Chinese general Ban Chao. Even the Kushan Empire of Kujula Kadphises sent an army to the Tarim Basin to support Kucha, but retreated after minor encounters.
In 124, Kucha formally submitted to the Chinese court, and by 127 China had conquered the whole of the Tarim Basin. Kucha became a part of the Western protectorate of the Chinese Han dynasty, with China's control of the Silk Road facilitating the exchange of art and the propagation of Buddhism from Central Asia. The Roman Maes Titianus visited the area in the 2nd century CE, as did numerous great Buddhist missionaries such as the Parthian An Shigao, the Yuezhis Lokaksema and Zhi Qian, or the Indian Zhú Shuòfú (). Around 150 CE, Chinese power in the western territories receded, and the Tarim Basin and its city-states regained independence.
4th- and 5th-century Silk Road
thumb|upright=1.5|The "Peacock Cave", in the [[Kizil Caves near Kucha, built circa 400 CE.]]
Kucha became very powerful and rich in the last quarter of the 4th century CE, about to take over most of the trade along the Silk Road at the expense of the Southern Silk Road, which lay along the southern edge of the Tarim Basin.
Culture flourished, and Indian Sanskrit scriptures were being translated by the Kuchean monk and translator Kumarajiva (344–413 CE), himself the son of a man from Kashmir and a Kuchean mother.</small>
thumb|Royal family of the oasis city-state of Kucha (King, Queen and young Princes), [[:Commons:Category:Cave of the Bodhisattva Vault (Cave 17)|Cave 17, Kizil Caves. Circa 500 CE, Hermitage Museum.]]
A specific style of music developed within the region and "Kuchean" music gained popularity as it spread along the trade lines of the Silk Road. Lively scenes of Kuchean music and dancing can be found in the Kizil Caves and are described in the writings of Xuanzang. "[T]he fair ladies and benefactresses of Kizil and Kumtura in their tight-waisted bodices and voluminous skirts recall—notwithstanding the Buddhic theme—that at all the halting places along the Silk Road, in all the rich caravan towns of the Tarim, Kucha was renowned as a city of pleasures, and that as far as China men talked of its musicians, its dancing girls, and its courtesans." Kuchean music was very popular in Tang China, particularly the lute, which became known in Chinese as the pipa. For example, within the collection of the Guimet Museum, two Tang female musician figures represent the two prevailing traditions: one plays a Kuchean pipa and the other plays a Chinese jiegu (an Indian-style drum). The music of Kucha, along with other early medieval music, was transmitted from China to Japan during the same period and is preserved there, somewhat transformed, as gagaku or Japanese court music.
thumb|[[Emperor Daizong of Tang|Dali coins founded in Kucha ]]
7th to 13th centuries
Following its conquest by the Tang dynasty in the early 7th century, during Emperor Taizong's campaign against the Western Regions, the city of Kucha was regarded by Han Chinese as one of the Four Garrisons of Anxi: the "Pacified West", or even its capital.
During a few decades of domination by the Tibetan Empire, in the late 7th century, Kucha was usually at least semi-independent.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, Uyghurs increasingly migrated into the area. After the destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate by Kyrgyz forces in 840, Kucha became an important center of the Uyghur kingdom of Qocho.
The extensive ruins of the ancient capital and the Subashi Temple (Chinese Qiuci), which was abandoned in the 13th century, lie north of modern Kucha.
Modern Kucha
thumb|upright|left|Kucha () delegates in 1761 in [[Beijing, China. 万国来朝图]]
Francis Younghusband, who passed through the oasis in 1887 on his journey from Beijing to India, described the district as "probably" having some 60,000 inhabitants. The modern Chinese town was about with a high wall, with no bastions or protection to the gateways, but a ditch about deep around it. It was filled with houses and "a few bad shops". The "Turk houses" ran right up to the edge of the ditch and there were remains of an old city to the south-east of the Chinese one, but most of the shops and houses were outside of it. About north of the Chinese city were barracks for 500 soldiers out of a garrison he estimated to total about 1500 men, who were armed with old Enfield rifles "with the Tower mark."
thumb|Detail of the Facade of the Kucha mosque
Kucha is now part of Kuqa, Xinjiang. It is divided into the new city, which includes the People's Square and transportation center, and the old city, where the Friday market and vestiges of the past city wall and cemetery are located. Along with agriculture, the city also manufactures cement, carpets, and other household necessities in its local factories.
Modern Scholarship on Kucha
Modern efforts to investigate the Kucha region's history have contributed to knowledge of China's rich cultural history. The Chinese government has taken steps towards studying the history of ancient cities such as Kucha to understand what role the city played during different areas, such as the time the Silk Road was active. Those in the immediate vicinity include the cave site of Achik-Ilek and Subashi. The archaeological investigations of the Kizil Caves provide documented evidence of what the caves looked like before they degraded over time. The Kizil Caves in the Kucha region contained Buddhist artwork and artifacts, some of which were excavated by explorers or kept in the caves. Over 30 caves have been discovered around the Kucha region which serve as tourist attractions today, but have been altered over time due to human activity and natural disasters. primarily the Sarvastivada, but eventually also Mahayana Buddhism during the Uighur period. In this respect it differed from Khotan, a Mahayana-dominated kingdom on the southern side of the desert.
According to the Book of Jin, during the third century there were nearly one thousand Buddhist stupas and temples in Kucha. At this time, Kuchanese monks began to travel to China. The fourth century saw yet further growth for Buddhism within the kingdom. The palace was said to resemble a Buddhist monastery, displaying carved stone Buddhas, and monasteries around the city were numerous.
Buddhism was the prominent faith in Kucha, and continued to be for centuries. After the Islamic conquest Buddhist structures, artwork, and other evidence of Buddhist worship had begun to vanish, being replaced with Islamic structures. The Kizil Caves, located in the Kucha region, have been excavated and the archaeological missions to the cave sites have subsequently revealed the city was once a Buddhist place of worship.
The structures known as the Kizil Caves and their subsequent artworks connect the ancient city of Kucha to surrounding areas with the historical spread of Buddhism.
Monks
Monks in ancient Kucha were connected with other countries via language. Buddhist Monks from Kucha had communicated in Sanskrit, and thus had a connection to India through this language. The Silk Road was in use during Kumarajiva's lifetime he utilized this path for the flow of ideas and religion into other regions, especially China. Kumarajiva learned from traveling Buddhist scholars and educators of other religions from an early age, setting the foundation for his later scholarship. Kumarajiva was 20 years old when he officially became a monk, adding to his credibility as a Buddhist teacher and scholar. His position in Kuchean history aided Buddhist practices and beliefs reach to different areas of China, even different variants of Buddhism.</blockquote>This description indicates that, at that time, the city was situated to the east of the river.
Archaeological discoveries
left|thumb|Ancient Wall of Kucha
In modern times, explorers reported the remains of an old city on the left (east) bank of the Kucha River. Aurel Stein, in his work Innermost Asia, traced the eastern wall of this ancient city for approximately 800 meters. He described the structure as a wall constructed of compacted earth blocks, approximately 18 meters thick and still standing 5 to 6 meters high. At regular intervals, the wall was reinforced with quadrangular bastions. Stein noted that the wall's top did not appear to have been crenellated. By the early 20th century, the northern and southern sections had mostly eroded, and the western wall had completely disappeared—likely washed away by the river.
Huang Wenbi provided more precise data during an expedition in 1957–1958. He estimated that the total length of the ancient city's walls was 5.5 kilometers. According to him, the eastern wall was 15 meters thick and 6.6 meters high, reinforced with quadrangular bastions spaced every 40 meters. However, its construction differed from that of the northern and southern walls. The eastern wall was built using large, coarse earthen blocks, while the northern and southern walls were made of compacted earth with a finer, ochre-colored structure. Their thickness varied, and unlike the eastern wall, they lacked quadrangular bastions. Huang Wenbi suggested that the northern and southern walls were older. According to Monique Maillard, this discrepancy might be attributed to different cultural influences: Chinese builders favored straight walls, while local traditions incorporated quadrangular bastions.
Stein identified this ancient city as the one described by the pilgrim Xuanzang, as its dimensions matched the recorded measurements. Huang Wenbi, relying on Chinese historical texts, reached the same conclusion.
Only a few monuments of the ancient city remain, documented by early explorers through photographs. The first, named the "Allal-Bagh Stūpa" by Pelliot, appears to have been a large stūpa with a ramp, similar to the Subashi Stūpa. Pelliot also photographed another stūpa, the "Sādhan Tourâ Stūpa," which seems to belong to the same architectural type.
thumb|Pilang Tura (Pílàng dūn 皮浪墩) in Pílàng Village 皮浪村 Kucha Township
The most significant structure, referred to as "Pilan Ourda" by Pelliot and "Pilang Tura" by Stein, is a massive construction made of large earthen blocks. It was located in the southeastern corner of the ancient city's enclosure. According to both Huang Wenbi and Stein, it was a large quadrangular building measuring 21 by 25 meters. It was constructed with solid masonry of large rough-hewn blocks resting on a foundation of compacted earth. At the top, a broad platform showed traces of a structure containing two rooms, one of which housed a large platform, possibly intended for a statue.
The exact function of this building remains uncertain. While Stein did not determine its purpose, Huang Wenbi suggested it was a defensive structure.
2016 excavations
In 2016, archaeologists uncovered a well‑constructed brick‑paved pathway made of blue bricks arranged in patterns with circular floral motifs at junctions. Parts of the city wall and a U‑shaped moat—measuring approximately 7.5 meters wide and 3.1 meters deep—were also revealed. Approximately 80 artifacts, including pottery, stone tools, building materials, and coins, were recovered.
2017 excavations
Further excavations in 2017 at the Qiongtayin site (Chinese: 穷特音墩, 穷特音墩) within the city uncovered residential structures, a courtyard, multiple ash pits, hearths, and post holes, along with a high‑platform building. Ten late‑period tombs were also unearthed, with some structures disrupted by burial activities. Artifacts such as pottery fragments, copper and iron implements, coins (including both clipped‑edge “Wu Zhu” coins and local Kucha coins), and animal bones were found. The predominantly wheel‑made redware pottery featured decorative motifs like cloud patterns, lotus petals, foliage, and drapery designs, suggesting a primary occupation during the Tang Dynasty.
Kizil Caves
The Kizil Caves lie about northwest of Kucha and were included within the rich fourth-century kingdom of Kucha. The caves claim origins from the royal family of ancient Kucha, specifically a local legend involving Princess Zaoerhan, the daughter of the King of Kucha. While out hunting, the princess met and fell in love with a local mason. When the mason approached the king to ask for permission to marry the princess, the king was appalled and vehemently against the union. He told the young man he would not grant permission unless the mason carved 1000 caves into the local hills. Determined, the mason went to the hills and began carving in order to prove himself to the king. After three years and carving 999 caves, he died from the exhaustion of the work. The distraught princess found his body, and grieved herself to death, and now, her tears are said to be current waterfalls that cascade down some of the cave's rock faces.
Coinage
thumb|right|A "Han Qiu bilingual Wu Zhu coin" (漢龜二體五銖錢) produced by the Kingdom of Kucha with both a Chinese and what is presumed to be a Kuśiññe inscription.
From around the third or fourth century Kucha began the manufacture of Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins inspired by the diminutive and devalued Wu Zhu's of the post-Han dynasty era in Chinese history. It is very likely that the cash coins produced in Kucha predate the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) and that the native production of coins stopped sometime after the year 621 when the Wu Zhu cash coins were discontinued in China proper. The coinage of Kucha includes the "Han Qiu bilingual Wu Zhu coin" (漢龜二體五銖錢, hàn qiū èr tǐ wǔ zhū qián) which has a yet undeciphered text belonging to a language spoken in Kucha.
Rulers
(Names are in modern Mandarin pronunciations based on ancient Chinese records)
- Hong (弘) 16
- Cheng De (丞德) 36
- Ze Luo (則羅) 46
- Shen Du (身毒) 50
- Jiang Bin (絳賓) 72
- Jian (建) 73
- You Liduo (尤利多) 76
- Bai Ba (白霸) 91
- Bai Ying (白英) 110–127
thumb|upright|King [[Suvarnapushpa of Kucha, from Cave 69, Kizil Caves.]]
- Bai Shan (白山) 280
- Long Hui (龍會) 326
- Bai Chun (白純) 349
- Bai Zhen (白震) 382
- Niruimo Zhunashen (尼瑞摩珠那勝) 521
- Bai Sunidie (白蘇尼咥) 562
- Anandavarman ?
- Tottika (circa 550–600)
- Suvarnapushpa (白蘇伐勃駃 Bái Sūfábókuài) 600–625
- Suvarnadeva (白蘇伐疊 Bai Sufadie) 625-645