The Kru languages are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the west of Ivory Coast.
Classification
According to Güldemann (2018), Kru lacks sufficient lexical resemblances and noun class resemblances to conclude a relationship with Niger-Congo. Glottolog considers Kru an independent language family.
Etymology
The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann (1952) it was used by Europeans to denote a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese (1989) notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited as "crew" by European seafarers; "the homonymy with crew is obvious, and is at least one source of the confusion among Europeans that there was a Kru/crew tribe".
History
Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their position at the crossroads of African-European interaction. He wrote that "Kru and associated languages were among the first to be encountered by European voyagers on what was then known as the Pepper Coast, a centre of the production and export of Guinea and melegueta pepper; a once staple African seaborne trade". The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems in Africa, rivaled perhaps only by the Omotic languages.
Current status
Recent documentation has noted "Kru societies can now be found along the coast of Monrovia, Liberia to Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire". "Villages maintain their ties based on presumed common descent, reinforced by ceremonial exchanges and gifts". Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, separate historical or ethnic identities, and social and political autonomy. This is the possible reason for so many subgroups of the Kru language. As noted by Fisiak, there is very little documentation on the Kru and associated languages.
Marchese's (1989) classification of Kru languages is as follows. Many of these languages are dialect clusters and are sometimes considered more than a single language.
- Kru
- Sɛmɛ (Siamou)
- Aizi
- Kuwaa
- Kru proper
- Eastern Kru
- Bakwe
- Bakwe
- Wane
- Bété
- Kuya
- Godié
- Dida
- Kwadia (Kodia) (Kwadia)
- Western Kru
- Bassa
- Bassa
- Dewoin
- Gbii
- Grebo
- Grebo (Jabo)
- Krumen
- Glio-Oubi
- Klao
- Klao
- Tajuasohn
- Wèè
- Guere
- Daho-Doo
- Glaro-Twabo
- Sapo
- Guere (Wè)
- Krahn
- Nyabwa
- Konobo
- Wobé
Ethnologue adds Neyo, which may be closest to Dida or Godie.
Grammar
Kru word order is primarily subject–verb–object (SVO), but can also often be subject–object–verb (SOV).
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Language !! eye !! ear !! nose !! tooth !! tongue !! mouth !! blood !! bone !! tree !! water !! eat !! name
|-
| Tepo || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Jrwe || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Guere || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Wobé || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Niaboua || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Bété (Daloa) || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Bété (Guibéroua) || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Néyo || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Godié || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Koyo || || || — || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Dida || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Aïzi || || || || || || || || || || || || —
|}
An additional sample basic vocabulary of 21 Kru languages from Marchese (1983):
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%"
! Classification !! Language !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|-
| Kuwaa || Kuwaa (Belleh) || dee || sɔ̃r || tãã̀ || ɲìjɛ̀hɛ || wàyɔ̀ɔ || wɔ̀rfɔlɛ̀ (5 + 1) || kɔrlɔrɔ̃r (5 + 2) || kwatãã̀ (5 + 3) || kɔ̃yĩ̀yɛ̀hɛ (5 + 4) || kowaa
|-
| Seme || Seme (Siamou) (1) || byẽ́ẽ || nĩ́ĩ̄ || tyáār || yūr || kwɛ̃̄l || kpã̄â || kĩ̄î || kprɛ̄n̂ || kɛ̄l || fú
|-
| Seme || Seme (Siamou) (2) || dyuɔ̃15 || nĩ15 || tyɛr15 || yur3 || kwɛ̃l3 || k͡pa4a34 || kyi4ĩ34 || k͡prɛ4ɛ̃34 || kal3 || fu1
|-
| Eastern, Bakwe || Bakwé || ɗôː || sɔ̂ː || tʌ̄ː || mɾɔ̄ː || ɡ͡bə̀ə̄ || ŋǔːɗō (5 + 1) || ŋǔːsɔ̄ (5 + 2) || ŋǔːtʌ̄ (5 + 3) || ŋǔːmɾɔ̄ (5 + 4) || pʊ̀
|-
| Eastern, Bakwe || Wané || do³ / ɗo³ || sɔ² || ta³ || ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ || ŋʷũ⁴² || ŋʷũ⁴² kloː²⁴(5 + 1) || ŋʷũ⁴² sɔ² (5 + 2) || ŋʷũ⁴² ta³ (5 + 3) || ŋʷũ⁴² ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ (5 + 4) || ŋʷũ⁴² bu⁴ or bu⁴
|-
| Eastern, Bete || Daloa Bété || ɓlʊ̄ || sɔ̋ || tá || mʊ̄wana || ŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ || ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ (5 + 1) || ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ (5 + 2) || ɡ͡bʊ̀wata (5 + 3) || ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana (5 + 4) || kʊ́ɡ͡ba
|-
| Eastern, Bete || Guiberoua Bété || ɓlʊ̄ || sɔ̋ || tá || mʊ̄wana || ŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ || ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ (5 + 1) || ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ (5 + 2) || ɡ͡bʊ̀wata (5 + 3) || ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana (5 + 4) || kʊ́ɡ͡ba
|-
| Eastern, Bete || Godié || ɓlōō || sɔ́ɔ́ || tāā || ŋ̀mɔ̀ɔ̀nā || ŋ̀ɡ͡bɨ́ || ŋ̀ɡ͡bóplóo (5 + 1) || ŋ̀ɡ͡bɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ (5 + 2) || ŋ̀ɡ͡bàátā (5 + 3) || ŋ̀vɔ̀ɔ̀nā || kʊ́ɡ͡bá
|-
| Eastern, Bete, Eastern || Gagnoa Bété || ɓɵ̯̀ɺō || sɔ̋ || tɑ̄ || mɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̄ || ŋ͡m̩̄.ɡ͡bú || ɡ͡bé.pó̯ɺó (5 + 1) || ɡ͡bɔ́ɔ́.sɔ̋ (5 + 2) || ɡ͡bɔ̋ɔ́.tā (5 + 3) || fɛ̀ɛ̀.nɔ̄ || kō.ɡ͡bɔ́
|-
| Eastern, Bete, Eastern || Guébie Bété || ɡ͡bɔlɔ².³ || so⁴ || ta³¹ || mɔna¹.³¹ || mŋɡ͡be² || mŋɡ͡beɡ͡bɔlɔ².².³ (5 + 1) || mŋɡ͡boso³.⁴ (5 + 2) || mŋɡ͡bata³.³¹ (5 + 3) || mŋɡ͡bɔfɛna³.¹.³¹ (5 + 4) || kɔɡ͡ba².³
|-
| Eastern, Bete, Eastern || Kouya || ɓlò || sɔ́ || tā || mnʊ̀à || ɡ͡bu || ɡ͡beliɓlò (5 + 1) || ɡ͡besɔ́ (5 + 2) || ɡ͡betā (5 + 3) || ɡ͡bomnʊ̀à (5 + 4) || kuɡ͡bua
|-
| Eastern, Dida || Yocoboué Dida || bóló || mwɔsɔ́ || mwɔtá || mwɔná || ɛŋɡ͡bɪ́ || ɛŋɡ͡bʊ́frɔ (5 + 1) || ɛmɓɔ́sɔ́ (5 + 2) || ɛmɓáta (5 + 3) || ɛmvwaná || kóɡ͡ba
|-
| Eastern, Dida || Neyo || ɓɔ̄ló || sɔ́ || tāā || mɔ̀nā || ɡ͡bɪ́ || ɡ͡bɪ́flɔ́ (5 + 1) || ɡ͡básɔ́ (5 + 2) || ɡ͡bátā (5 + 3) || fɛ̄nā (5 + 4) || kʊ́ɡ͡bá
|-
| Eastern, Kwadia || Kodia || ɡ͡bɤlɤ³² / ɓɤlɤ³² || sɔː² || taː² || mɔna⁴³ || ⁿɡ͡bɤ³ || ⁿɡ͡bɤwlɤ³³³ (5 + 1) || ⁿɡ͡bɔː⁴³sɔ³ (5 + 2) || ⁿɡ͡baː⁴³ta³ (5 + 3) || ⁿɡ͡bɤmɔna³⁴³ (5 + 4) || kʊɡ͡ba³³
|-
| Western, Bassa || Bassa || ɖò, dyúáɖò || sɔ̃́ || tã || hĩinyɛ || hm̀m̌ || mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-ɖò (5 + 1) || mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2) || mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-tã (5 + 3) || mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-hĩinyɛ (5 + 4) || ɓaɖa-bùè
|-
| Western, Bassa || Dewoin (Dewoi) || ɡ͡bǒ || sɔ̃́ || ta || hĩinyɛ || hm̀m̌ || meɖe-ɡ͡bǒ (5 + 1) || meɖe-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2) || meɖe-ta (5 + 3) || meɖe-hĩinyɛ (5 + 4) || vù
|-
| Western, Bassa || Gbasei (Gbii) (1) || dɔ̀ː / ɗɔ̀káⁱ || sɔ̃́ || tã || ɲ̀yɛ̃ || m̀ḿ || m̀mɽědɔ̀ (5 + 1) || m̀mɽěsɔ̃́ (5 + 2) || m̀mɽětã́ (5 + 3) || m̀mɽěɲ̀yɛ̃ (5 + 4) || báɽápʰùwe
|-
| Western, Bassa || Gbii (Gbi-Dowlu) (2) || dòò, dyúáɖò || sɔ̃́ || tã || hĩ̀nyɛ || hm̀m̀ || mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-ɖò (5 + 1) || mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2) || mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-tə̃ (5 + 3) || mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-hĩ̀nyɛ (5 + 4) || ɓaɖabùè
|-
| Western, Grebo, Glio-Oubi || Glio-Oubi || dō || hwə̃ || tã́ || hə̃ || ɡ͡bə̀ || hṹdò (5 + 1) || hũ̀sɔ́ (5 + 2) || mɛra (5 + 3) || mɛ́ɲɛ̀ (5 + 4) || pue
|-
| Western, Grebo, Ivorian || Pye (Piè) Krumen || dò || hʋɛ̃́ || tā || hɛ̃̀ || hũ̌ || hũ̀jārō [hũ̀jāɾō] ('five plus one') || hũ̀jāhʋɛ̃́ ('five plus two') || hũ̀jātā ('five plus three') || hũ̀jāhɛ̃̀ ('five plus four') || pù
|-
| Western, Grebo, Ivorian || Tepo Krumen (1) || dò || hɔ̃́ || tā || hɛ̃̀ || hũ̌ || huõ̀nɔ̀ (5 + 1) || nɪ́pātā (litː 'not/be/three') || nɪ́pāhɔ̃́, yèhɛ̃̀yèhɛ̃̀ (2 x 4) || sēlédò (litː 'remains /there/one') || pù
|-
| Western, Grebo, Ivorian || Tepo Krumen (2) || dô || ɔ̄ɛ́n || tā || hɛ̀n || ùm || ùmnɔ̄dô (5 + 1) || ùmnɔ̄ɔ̄ɛ́n (5 + 2) || blɛ̄nbìɛ̀n || ùmīyándō || pù
|-
| Western, Grebo, Liberian || Central Grebo (Barrobo) || dòo || ɔ̌n || taan || hɛ̃ɛn || wùun || wùnɔ̀dǒ (5 + 1) || jetan (4 + 3) ? || jiinhɛ̀n (4 + 4) ? || sǒndò (litː 'remain one' before 10) || fù
|-
| Western, Grebo, Liberian || Northern Grebo || do || sɔ̃̌ || tã || hɛ̃̀ || m̀m || mmɔ̀do (5 + 1) || nyiɛtã (4 + 3) || nnyɛɛ (4 + 4) || siědo (litː 'remain one' before 10) || pù
|-
| Western, Klao || Klao || dô || sɔ́n || tan || nyìɛ̀ || mù || mùnéɛ́do (5 + 1) || mùnéɛ́sɔ́n (5 + 2) || mùnéɛtan (5 + 3) || sopádo (10 - 1) || puè
|-
| Western, Klao || Tajuasohn || doe || sunn nn = ? || tan || hin || hoom || ḿhon doe (5 + 1) || ḿhon sunn (5 + 2) || hinin (4 + 4) || siɛrdoe (litː 'remains one') || punn
|-
| Western, Wee, Guere-Krahn || Western Krahn || tòò || sɔɔ̌n || ta̓a̓n || nyìɛ̓ || m̀m̌ || mɛ̀o̓ (5 + 1) || mɛ̀sɔɔ̌n (5 + 2) || mɛta̓a̓ǹ (5 + 3) || mɛ̀nyìɛ̓ (5 + 4) || pùèè
|-
| Western, Wee, Guere-Krahn || Sapo || duě / tòò || sɔn || tan || nyìɛ || m̀m̌ || mɛ̀lǒ (5 + 1) || mɛ̀sɔn (5 + 2) || mɛ̌tan (5 + 3) || mɛ̌nyiɛ (5 + 4) || pùè
|-
| Western, Wee, Nyabwa || Nyabwa (Nyaboa) || do4 || sɔ̃2 || tã3 || ɲiɛ33 || mu4u1 || mɛ4ɛ1lo4 (5 + 1) || mɛ4ɛ1sɔ̃2 (5 + 2) || mɛ4ɛ1tã3 (5 + 4) || mɛ4ɛ1ɲiɛ33 (5 + 5) || bue44
|-
| Western, Wee, Wobe || Northern Wè (Wobe) || too3 / due1 || sɔɔn2 / sɔn2 || taan3 || nyiɛ43 || mm41 || mɛ41o3 (5 + 1) || mɛ41sɔn2 (5 + 2) || mɛ41na3 (5 + 3) || mɛ41nyiɛ3 (5 + 4) || puue3
|}
Comparison of numerals in Kru languages from Marchese (1983):
- phonemic nasalized vowels
- four level tones
- *CVCV-(C)V and probably *CVV syllable structure. *CCV syllables, and possibly also *CVV syllables, are derived from *CVCV roots.
- SVO word order, but with much OV typology
- suffixing morphology
- perfective and imperfective aspects
Proto-Kru consonants (Marchese Zogbo 2012):
{| class="wikitable"
| p || t || k || kp
|-
| b || d || g || gb
|-
| ɓ || || ||
|-
| m || n || ŋ (?) ||
|-
| || s || ||
|-
| || l || w ||
|}
Derived consonants:
- /ɟ/ is likely derived via palatalization (*g > ɟ), e.g. *gie > ɟie.
- *c, *ɲ, *kʷ, *gʷ, *ŋʷ are derived from alveolar or velar consonants preceding high back or high front vowels.
- /ɗ/ is likely derived from *l.
Proto-Kru vowels (Marchese Zogbo 2012):
{| class="wikitable"
| ɪ || ʊ
|-
| e || o
|-
| ɛ || ɔ
|-
| a ||
|}
There is a clear bipartite division between Western and Eastern Kru marked by phonological and lexical distinctions. Some isoglosses between Western Kru and Eastern Kru:
{| class="wikitable"
! Gloss !! Proto-Western Kru !! Proto-Eastern Kru
|-
| tree || ||
|-
| dog || ||
|-
| fire || ||
|-
| tooth || ||
|}