Kojiki - WikiHQ

The , also sometimes read as or , is an early Japanese chronicle of myths, legends, hymns, genealogies, oral traditions, and semi-historical accounts dating as far back as 641 concerning the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the kami, and the Japanese imperial line. It is claimed in its preface to have been composed by Ō no Yasumaro at the request of Empress Genmei in the early 8th century (711–712), and thus is usually considered to be the oldest extant literary work in Japan.

The myths contained in the as well as the Nihon Shoki are part of the inspiration behind many practices and unified "Shinto orthodoxy". Later, they were incorporated into Shinto practices such as the purification ritual.

Composition

thumb|upright|Portrait of [[Ō no Yasumaro by Kikuchi Yōsai (19th century)]]

It is believed that the compilation of various genealogical and anecdotal histories of the imperial (Yamato) court and prominent clans began during the reigns of Emperors Keitai and Kinmei in the 6th century, with the first concerted effort at historical compilation of which we have record being the one made in 620 under the auspices of Prince Shotoku and Soga no Umako. According to the Nihon Shoki, the documents compiled under their initiative were the Tennōki or the "Record of the Emperors", the Kokki (, also Kunitsufumi) or the "National Record", and other "fundamental records" (, hongi or mototsufumi) pertaining to influential clans and free subjects. Out of these texts, only the Kokki survived the burning of Soga no Emishi's estate (where these documents were kept) during the Isshi incident of 645, and was itself apparently lost soon after.

The Kojiki preface indicates that leading families also kept their own historical and genealogical records; indeed, one of the reasons it gives for the compilation of the Kojiki is the correction of errors that had supposedly crept into these documents. According to the preface, Emperor Tenmu (reigned 673–686) ordered the review and emendation of clan documents and commissioned a certain court attendant (toneri) of exceptional memory named Hieda no Are to memorize records and oral traditions concerning the imperial lineage. Beyond this memorization, nothing occurred until the reign of Empress Genmei (reigned 707–715), who on the 18th of the 9th month of 711 (Wadō 4) ordered the courtier Ō no Yasumaro to record what had been learned by Hieda no Are. Yasumaro wrote down the information in Classical Chinese and presented his work to Empress Genmei on the 28th of the 1st month of 712 (Wadō 5).

The Kojiki narrative establishes the Yamato line's right to rule via myth and legend, portraying it as the progeny of heavenly deities and the rightful heir to the land of Japan. A good part of the latter portion of the text is spent recounting various genealogies which served not only to give the imperial family an air of antiquity (which may not necessarily reflect historical reality), but also served to tie, whether true or not, many existing clans' genealogies to their own. Regardless of the work's original intent, it finalized and possibly even formulated the framework by which Japanese history was examined in terms of the reign of emperors.

Transmission and study

thumb|Kan'ei Kojiki, 1644 ([[Kokugakuin University)]]

Whereas the Nihon Shoki, owing to its status as one of the six imperial histories, was widely read and studied during the Heian period (794–1185), the Kojiki was mostly treated as an ancillary text. Indeed, a work known as the Sendai Kuji Hongi (also known as the Kujiki), claimed to have been authored by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, was considered to be earlier and more reliable than the Kojiki. (Modern scholarly consensus holds the Kuji Hongi to be a Heian period forgery based on both the Kojiki and the Shoki, although certain portions may indeed preserve genuine early traditions and sources.) By the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the work languished in obscurity such that very few people had access to the text, particularly that of the middle (second) volume. It is due to this neglect that the Kojiki is available only in comparatively late manuscripts, the earliest of which dates to the late 14th century.

It was with the advent of printing in the early modern period that the Kojiki first reached a wide audience. The earliest printed edition of the text was the Kan'ei Kojiki (), published in Kyoto in 1644 (Kan'ei 21). A second edition, the Gōtō Kojiki (, "Kojiki with Marginal Notes") was printed by Deguchi (Watarai) Nobuyoshi, a priest at Ise Shrine, in 1687 (Jōkyō 4).

thumb|right|upright=1.3|Kojiki-den by Motoori Norinaga

The birth of nativist studies (kokugaku) and nationalist sentiment during the Edo period saw a reappraisal of the Kojiki. Kokugaku scholars saw Japan's earliest writings as the repository of a uniquely superior Japanese identity that could be revived by recovering the ancient language they were written in; the Kojiki, by virtue of its antiquity, gained the status of a sacred text. The Kojiki came to be highly regarded that scholars such as Kada no Azumamaro and Kamo no Mabuchi – himself a student of Azumamaro – produced annotated versions of it. Norinaga's work was carried on in different directions by his disciple Hirata Atsutane and his rivals Fujitani Mitsue (1768–1823) and Tachibana Moribe (1781–1849), who each produced commentaries and treatises on the text. However, the Kojiki was still widely seen as inferior to the Nihon Shoki until Motoori Norinaga wrote the Kojiki-den.

Sections

The Kojiki is divided into three parts: the , the and the .

The Kamitsumaki, also known as the , includes the preface of the Kojiki, and is focused on the deities of creation and the births of various deities of the kamiyo () period, or Age of the Gods. The Kamitsumaki also outlines the myths concerning the foundation of Japan. It describes how Ninigi-no-Mikoto, grandson of Amaterasu and great-grandfather of Emperor Jimmu, descended from heaven to Takachihonomine in Kyūshū and became the progenitor of the Japanese Imperial line.
The Nakatsumaki begins with the conquests of Jimmu, which make him the first Emperor of Japan; and ends with the 15th Emperor, Ōjin. The second through ninth Emperors' reigns are recorded in a minimum of detail, with only their names, the names of their various descendants, and the locations of their palaces and tombs listed, with no mention of their achievements. Many of the stories in this volume are mythological; the allegedly historical information is highly suspect.
The Shimotsumaki covers the 16th to 33rd Emperors and, unlike previous volumes, has very limited references to interactions with deities. (Such interactions are very prominent in the first and second volumes.) Information about the 24th to 33rd Emperors is scant.

Synopsis

What follows is a condensed summary of the contents of the text, including many of the names of gods, emperors, and locations as well as events which took place in association with them. The original Japanese is included in parentheses where appropriate.

Preface ()

Ō no Yasumaro's preface, in the form of a dedicatory address to Empress Genmei, begins with a poem summarizing the main contents of the work. He then relates how Emperor Tenmu commissioned Hieda no Are to memorize the genealogies and records of the imperial house years earlier, and how Genmei in turn ordered Yasumaro to compile a written record of what Are had learned. He finally concludes the preface with a brief explanation of the Chinese characters used to transcribe native Japanese words in the text and the division of the work into three volumes.

The Kamitsumaki (), or first volume

The Nakatsumaki (), or second volume

Kamu-Yamato-Iwarebiko-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Jimmu ()
Emperor Jimmu conquers Yamato
The sword from heaven, or Futsu no mitama (), and the three-legged crow, or Yatagarasu ()
The emperor's brother Hikoitsuse no Mikoto ()
From Kumano () to Yamato ()
An ancient ballad, kumeuta ()
The Empress Isukeyorihime or Empress Hime Tatara Isuzu ()
The rebellion of Tagishimimi no Mikoto ()
Kamu-Nunakawamimi-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Suizei ()
Shikitsuhiko-Tamatemi-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Annei ()
Ōyamatohiko-Sukitomo-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Itoku ()
Mimatsuhiko-Kaeshine-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Kōshō ()
Ōyamato-Tarashihiko-Kuni-oshihito-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Kōan ()
Ōyamato-Nekohiko-Futoni-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Kōrei ()
Ōyamato-Nekohiko-Kunikuru-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Kōgen ()
Wakayamato-Nekohiko-Ōbibi-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Kaika ()
Mimakiirihiko-Inie-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Sujin ()
The emperor's son and queen
The god of Mount Miwa () or Mimoro (), Ōmononushi ()
The rebellion of Takehaniyasu no Miko ()
Emperor Hatsukunishirashishi ()
Ikume-Iribiko-Isachi-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Suinin ()
The emperor's son and queen
The Sahobiko () and Sahobime ()
Homuchiwakenomiko () ()
The fruit of time
Ōtarashihiko-Oshirowake-no-Sumeramikoto (), or Emperor Keikō ()
The emperor's son and queen
Yamato-Takeru-no-Mikoto's () conquest of the Kumaso people ()
Izumo-Takeru's () Subjugation
Yamato Takeru's conquest of the eastern regions
Miyazuhime ()
The Kunishinobiuta (), or country song
Yahiroshiro Chidori ()
Yamato-Takeru's Posterity
Wakatarashihiko-no-Sumeramikoto (), or Emperor Seimu ()
Tarashi-Nakatsuhiko-no-Sumeramikoto (), or Emperor Chūai ()
The emperor's son and queen
The divine possession of Empress Consort Jingū ()
The empress consort's expedition to Silla ()
Kagosaka no Miko () and Oshikuma no Miko's () rebellion
The great god Kehi ()
The Sakekura song ()
Homudawake-no-Mikoto (), or Emperor Ōjin ()
The emperor's son and queen
Price Ōyamamori no Mikoto () and Emperor Ōsazaki no Mikoto ()
Yakahaehime ()
Kaminagahime ()
The Kuzu song ()
The tribute of Baekje ()
The rebellion of Price Ōyamamori no Mikoto ()
Visit of Amenohiboko ()
Akiyama Shitahiotoko () and Haruyama Kasumiotoko ()
The emperor's posterity

The Shimotsumaki (), or final volume

Ōsazaki no mikoto (), or Emperor Nintoku ()
The emperor's son and queen
Kibi Kurohime ()
Yatanowakiiratsume () and Iha no hime ()
Hayabusawake no kimi () and Medori no kimi ()
Wild goose eggs
A boat called Kareno (), or desolate field
Izahowake no miko (), or Emperor Richū ()
The rebellion of Suminoenonakatsu no kimi ()
Mizuhawake no kimi () and Sobakari ()
Mizuhawake no mikoto (), or Emperor Hanzei ()
Osatsumawakugonosukune no miko (), or Emperor Ingyō ()
The emperor's son and queen
Uji kabane system ()
Karunohitsugi no miko () and Karunōhoiratsume ()
Anaho no miko (), or Emperor Ankō ()
Ōkusaka no kimi () and Nenōmi ()
The incident of Mayowa no kimi () and Mayowa no ōkimi ()
Ichinobenōshiwa no kimi ()
Ōhatsusewakatake no mikoto (), or Emperor Yūryaku ()
The emperor's son and queen
Wakakusakabe no kimi ()
Akaiko ()
Yoshinomiya ()
Kazuraki () Hitokotonushi no ōkami ()
Odohime (), Mie Uneme ()
Shiraka no ōyamato (), or Emperor Seinei ()
Shijimu Nihimurōtage ()
Utagaki ()
Iwasuwake no mikoto (), or Emperor Kenzō ()
Okeme Roujo ()
Misasagi no Tsuchi ()
Ōke no miko (), or Emperor Ninken ()
Ohatsuse no wakasazaki no mikoto (), or Emperor Buretsu ()
Ohodo no mikoto (), or Emperor Keitai ()
Hirokunioshitakekanahi no miko (), or Emperor Ankan ()
Takeohirokunioshitate no mikoto (), or Emperor Senka ()
Amekunioshiharukihironiwa no sumeramiko (), or Emperor Kinmei ()
Nunakurafutotamashiki no mikoto (), or Emperor Bidatsu ()
Tachibananotoyohi no miko (), or Emperor Yōmei ()
Hatsusebenowakasazaki no sumeramikoto (), or Emperor Sushun ()
Toyomikekashikiyahime no mikoto (), or Empress Suiko ()

English-language translations

Chamberlain, Basil Hall. 1882. A translation of the "Ko-ji-ki" or Records of ancient matters. Yokohama, Japan: R. Meiklejohn and Co., Printers. (www.sacred-texts.com)
Philippi, Donald L. 1968/1969. Kojiki. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press and Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. ()
Heldt, Gustav. 2014. The Kojiki: An Account of Ancient Matters. New York: Columbia University Press. ()

Notes

References

Bentley, John R. The Authenticity of Sendai Kuji Hongi: A New Examination of Texts, With a Translation And Commentary. ()
Brownlee, John S. (1997) Japanese historians and the national myths, 1600-1945: The Age of the Gods and Emperor Jimmu. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. () Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. ()
Brownlee, John S. (1991). Political Thought in Japanese Historical Writing: From Kojiki (712) to Tokushi Yoron (1712). Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ()
Ono, Motonori Shinto: The Kami Way
Starrs, Roy (2005). "The Kojiki as Japan's National Narrative", in Asian Futures, Asian Traditions, edited by Edwina Palmer. Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental,
Wittkamp, Robert F. (2018). "The Body as a Mode of Conceptualization in the Kojiki Cosmogony" in「東西学術研究所紀要」第51輯 (Tōzai gakujutsu kenkyūsho kiyō 51, pp. 47–64, PDF online available).
Wittkamp, Robert F. (2020): "Re-Examining Japanese Mythologies: Why the Nihon Shoki has two books of myths but the Kojiki only one" in「東西学術研究所紀要」第53輯 (Tōzai gakujutsu kenkyūsho kiyō 53, pp. 13–39, PDF online available).

External links

Original Text of the Kojiki.
Chamberlain's translation of Kojiki:
full text at the Internet Sacred Text Archive
scan from The sacred books and early literature of the East, edited by Charles Horne
Encyclopedia of Shinto　Kokugakuin University
Basic Terms of Shinto　Kokugakuin University
parallel text in the original language and in English
Online original text of the Kojiki and other texts
Waseda University Library: 1644 manuscript, three volumes