Khan (, , ) is a historic Turkic and Mongolic title originating among nomadic tribes in the Central and Eastern Eurasian Steppe to refer to a king. It first appears among the Rouran and then the Göktürks as a variant of khagan (sovereign, emperor) and implied a subordinate ruler. In the Seljük Empire, it was the highest noble title, ranking above malik (king) and emir (prince). In the Mongol Empire it signified the ruler of a horde (ulus), while the ruler of all the Mongols was the khagan or great khan. It is a title commonly used to signify the head of a Pashtun tribe or clan.

The title subsequently declined in importance. During the Safavid and Qajar dynasty it was the title of an army general high noble rank who was ruling a province, and in Mughal India it was a high noble rank restricted to courtiers. After the downfall of the Mughals it was used promiscuously and became a surname. Khan and its female forms occur in many personal names, generally without any nobiliary of political relevance, although it remains a common part of noble names as well.

Etymology

The origin of the term is disputed and unknown, possibly a loanword from the Rouran language. A Turkic and Para-Mongolic origin has been suggested by a number of scholars including Ramstedt, Shiratori, Sinor and Doerfer, and was reportedly first used by the Xianbei.

Dybo (2007) suggests that the ultimate etymological root of Khagan/Khan comes from the Middle Iranian *hva-kama- 'self-ruler, emperor', following the view of Benveniste 1966. Savelyev and Jeong 2020 note that both the etymological root for Khagan/Khan and its female equivalent "khatun" may be derived from Eastern Iranian languages, specifically from "Early Saka *hvatuñ, cf. the attested Soghdian words xwt'w 'ruler' (< *hva-tāvya-) and xwt'yn 'wife of the ruler' (< *hva-tāvyani)".

History

"Khan" is first encountered as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289. The Rourans may have been the first people who used the titles khagan and khan for their emperors. However, Russian linguist Alexander Vovin (2007) believes that the term qaγan originated among the Xiongnu people, who were Yeniseian-speaking (according to Vovin), and then it diffused across language families. Subsequently, the Göktürks adopted the title and brought it to the rest of Asia. In the middle of the sixth century the Iranians knew of a "Kagan – King of the Turks". and Genghis Khan's successors selected to rule the Mongol Empire starting from 1229. Genghis Khan himself was referred as qa'an (khagan) only posthumously. For instance Möngke Khan (reigned 1251–1259) and Ogedei Khan (reigned 1229–1241) would be "Khagans" but not Chagatai Khan, who was not proclaimed ruler of the Mongol Empire by the Kurultai.

Khanate rulers and dynasties

Ruling khans

Originally khans headed only relatively minor tribal entities, generally in or near the vast Mongolian and North Chinese steppe, the scene of an almost endless procession of nomadic people riding out into the history of the neighbouring sedentary regions. Some managed to establish principalities of some importance for a while, as their military might repeatedly proved a serious threat to empires in the Central Plain and Central Asia.

One of the earliest notable examples of such principalities in Europe was Danube Bulgaria (presumably also Old Great Bulgaria), ruled by a khan or a kan at least from the 7th to the 9th century. The title "khan" is not attested directly in inscriptions and texts referring to Bulgar rulers – the only similar title found so far, Kanasubigi, has been found solely in the inscriptions of three consecutive Bulgarian rulers, namely Krum, Omurtag and Malamir (a grandfather, son and grandson). Starting from the compound, non-ruler titles that were attested among Bulgarian noble class such as kavkhan (vicekhan), tarkhan, and boritarkhan, scholars derive the title khan or kan for the early Bulgarian leader – if there was a vicekhan (kavkhan) there was probably a "full" khan, too. Compare also the rendition of the name of early Bulgarian ruler Pagan as (Kampaganos), likely resulting from a misinterpretation of "Kan Pagan", in Patriarch Nicephorus's so-called Breviarium. In general, however, the inscriptions as well as other sources designate the supreme ruler of Danube Bulgaria with titles that exist in the language in which they are written – archontes, meaning 'commander or magistrate' in Greek, and knyaz, meaning "duke" or "prince" in Slavic. Among the best known Bulgar khans were: Khan Kubrat, founder of Great Bulgaria; Khan Asparukh, founder of Danubian Bulgaria (today's Bulgaria); Khan Tervel, who defeated the Arab invaders in 718 Siege of Constantinople (718), thus stopped the Arab invasion in Southeast Europe; Khan Krum, "the Fearsome". "Khan" was the official title of the ruler until 864 AD, when Knyaz Boris (known also as Tsar Boris I) adopted the Eastern Orthodox faith.

thumb|300px|[[Eurasia on the eve of the Mongol invasions, ]]

The title Khan rose to unprecedented prominence with the Mongol Temüjin's creation of the Mongol empire, the largest contiguous empire in history, which he ruled as Genghis Khan. Before 1229 the title was used to designate leaders of important tribes as well as tribal confederations (the Mongol Empire considered the largest one), and rulers of non-Mongol countries. The title of agha (Āqā in Persian) comes from the Old Turkic and Mongolian aqa, meaning “elder brother”, and is used as a term of respect like “lord” or “master”.

  • Beg Khan (a concatenation of Baig and Khan) is a title used by some Mughals and Mongols.
  • Gur Khan or Gür Qan, meaning “Universal Khan” or “Ruler of All”, was the ruler of the Khitan Kara-Khitai, and had occasionally been used by the Mongols as well. It can be found in the Secret History of the Mongols in the form () as the title bestowed upon Jamukha, leader of the Jadaran tribe and former (sworn brother) to Genghis Khan.
  • This is not to be confused with Gurkan, Gurkani, or Gurkaniya (, ), a title used by the Timurids and Mughals. This word instead ultimately derives from (, ), a reference to Timur’s marriage into the Chinggisids through his marriage to Saray Mulk Khanum, a direct descendant of Genghis Khan.
  • Han, potentially pronounced as Gan or Kan, is a Korean word meaning “great (one), grand, large, much, many”. The Silla language had a usage of this word for “king” or “ruler” as found in the royal titles Maripgan () and Geoseogan / Geoseulhan (). Alexander Vovin suggests this word is related to the Mongolian Khan and Manchurian Han meaning “ruler”, and that the ultimate origin is Xiongnu and Yeniseian.
  • Ilkhan or Il-Khan () is both a generic term for a “provincial Khan” and the traditional royal style for the rulers of the Ilkhanate, one of the Mongol Empire’s successor states based in Persia.
  • Kanasubigi (, ) was a title of the early Bulgar rulers of the First Bulgarian Empire. Among the proposed translations for the phrase kanasubigi as a whole are “lord of the army”, from the reconstructed Turkic phrase *sü begi, paralleling the attested Old Turkic sü baši, and, more recently, “(ruler) from God”, from the Indo-European *su- and baga-, i.e. *su-baga (an equivalent of the Greek phrase , ho ek Theou archon, which is common in Bulgar inscriptions).
  • Kavhan was one of the most important officials in the First Bulgarian Empire. or Kaukhan According to the generally accepted opinion, he was the second most important person in the state after the Bulgarian ruler.
  • Khan Bahadur - a compound of khan (leader) and Bahadur (Brave) - was a formal title of respect and honour, which was conferred exclusively on Muslim subjects of the British Indian Empire. It was a title one degree higher than the title of Khan Sahib.
  • Khan Sahib Shri Babi was the complex title of the ruler of the Indian princely state of Bantva-Manavadar (state founded 1760; September 1947 acceded to Pakistan, but 15 February 1948 forced to rescind accession to Pakistan, to accede to India after Khan Sahib's arrest).
  • Khan-i-Khanan (, “Lord of Lords”) was a title given to the commander-in-chief of the army of the Mughals, an example being Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana of the Mughal emperor Akbar's (and later his son Jahangir's) army.
  • Khanum (; ; , ) is another female derivation of Khan, notably in Turkic languages, for a Khan's Queen-consort, or in some traditions extended as a courtesy title (a bit like Lady for women not married to a Lord, which is the situation modern Turkish) to the wives of holders of various other (lower) titles. In mostly Persian-speaking Afghanistan, it ended up as the common term for 'Miss', any unmarried woman; in the Iranian Persian language it is used to address any woman respectfully, as in 'Ms. Smith' / 'Khanum-e Smith'. In the modern Kazakh language, Khatun is a derogatory term for women, while Khanum has a respectful meaning.
  • The compound Galin Khanum – literally, “lady bride” – was the title accorded by Qajars to the first Qajar or highborn permanent (aqdi) wife of the Shah or a prince.
  • Khanzada () is a title conferred to princes of the dynasties of certain princely states of India. The word also transliterates to “prince” in the Uzbek and Kazakh languages and was used by these Central Asian peoples to honor their princes.
  • Khatun, or Khatan () – a title of Iranian Sogdian origin – is roughly equal to a King's queen in Mongolic and Turkic languages, as by this title a ruling Khan's Queen-consort (wife) is designated with similar respect after their proclamation as Khan and Khatun. Used in the Khazar language in place of Khanum). Famous Khatuns include Töregene Khatun and .Habba Khatun
  • Qara Khaqan, or Qara Khan (, ; , ) was the foremost title of the Karluk rulers of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, as well as the source of its name. The Old Turkic word qara (𐰴𐰺𐰀) means “black, dark” but may also mean “north”, “courageous”, or serve as an intensifier.

Other khans

thumbnail|Two Khans in Turkoman Tribal Costume, One of 274 Vintage Photographs. [[Brooklyn Museum.]]

Noble and honorary titles

In imperial Persia, Khan (female form Khanum in Persia) was the title of a nobleman, higher than Beg (or bey) and usually used after the given name. At the Qajar court, precedence for those not belonging to the dynasty was mainly structured in eight classes, each being granted an honorary rank title, the fourth of which was Khan, or in this context synonymously Amir, granted to commanders of armed forces, provincial tribal leaders; in descending order.

In neighboring Ottoman Turkey and subsequently the Republic of Turkey, the term Khanum was and is still written as Hanım in Turkish/Ottoman Turkish language. The Ottoman title of Hanımefendi (lit translated; lady of the master), is also a derivative of this.

The titles Khan and Khan Bahadur (from the Altaic root baghatur), related to the Turkic batyr or batur and Mongolian baatar ("brave, hero"); were also bestowed in feudal India by the Mughals, who although Muslims were of Turkic origin upon Muslims and awarded this title to Hindus generals in army particularly in Gaud or Bengal region during Muslim rulers, and later by the British Raj, as an honor akin to the ranks of nobility, often for loyalty to the crown. Khan Sahib was another title of honour.

In the major Indian Muslim state of Hyderabad, Khan was the lowest of the aristocratic titles bestowed by the ruling Nizam upon Muslim retainers, ranking under Khan Bahadur, Nawab (homonymous with a high Muslim ruler's title), Jang, Daula, Mulk, Umara, Jah. The equivalent for the courts Hindu retainers was Rai. In Swat, a Pakistani Frontier State, it was the title of the secular elite, who together with the Mullahs (Muslim clerics), proceeded to elect a new Amir-i-Shariyat in 1914. It seems unclear whether the series of titles known from the Bengal sultanate are merely honorific or perhaps relate to a military hierarchy.

Other uses

Like many titles, the meaning of the term has also extended southwards into South Asian countries, and Central Asian nations, where it has become a common surname.

Khan and its female forms occur in many personal names, generally without any nobiliary of political relevance, although it remains a common part of noble names as well. Notably in South Asia it has become a part of many South Asian Muslim names, of Indian subcontinent who were awarded this surname by Mughals for their bravery. and it's widely used by Baloch and Awan tribes.

  • Khanzadeh () – a prince, khan's son
  • Khanbikeh () – a queen, khan's wife
  • Khanbaliq (or Dadu) – Yuan capital which later developed into modern Beijing.
  • Il khan
  • Bogda Khan
  • Khan of Heaven
  • Khatun, Khanum – female equivalent of Khan or title of women of the Khan's family

See also

  • Kaan (name)
  • Khanate
  • Turco-Mongol
  • Pashtuns
  • List of Mongol rulers
  • Aga Khan
  • Azmatkhan
  • Ejen
  • Jirga
  • Khagan
  • Chanyu
  • Archon
  • King
  • Bey
  • Beg Khan
  • Elteber
  • Tsar
  • Kaiser
  • Crimean Khanate
  • Khong Tayiji
  • Khan (surname)
  • Khan of Heaven

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

  • Etymology OnLine