Keres (), also Keresan (), is a Native American language, spoken by the Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico. Depending on the analysis, Keres is considered a small language family or a language isolate with several dialects. If it is considered a language isolate, it would be the most widely spoken language isolate within the borders of the United States. The varieties of each of the seven Keres pueblos are mutually intelligible with its closest neighbors. There are significant differences between the Western and Eastern groups, which are sometimes counted as separate languages.
Classification
Keres is now considered a language isolate. In the past, Edward Sapir grouped it together with a Hokan–Siouan stock. Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with Wichita. Joseph Greenberg grouped Keres with Siouan, Yuchi, Caddoan, and Iroquoian in a superstock called Keresiouan. None of these proposals has been validated by subsequent linguistic research.
Internal classification
In 2013, there was an estimate total of 13,190 speakers. number of fricatives (i.e. ) and affricates, the latter also showing the three-way distinction found in stops.
The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between long and short vowels (e.g. ), as well as from the presence of tones and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: , all of which are used to distinguish words in the language.
Consonants
The chart below contains the consonants of the proto-Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from Miller & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects compiled from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987), and The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and the Grammar of Laguna Keres (2005). The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), For instance, the first vowel in the word-sentence Sraúka̠cha̠ – "I see you":
- Kotyit Keres:
- Kʼawaika Keres:
Voiceless vowels
All Keresan short vowels may be devoiced in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels is controversial. Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on the environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced. Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Tones
!examples
!translation
|- style="text-align:center;"
!High
|,
|here, matrilineal uncle
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Low
|
|young boy
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Rising
|
|because
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Falling
|,
|and, whole part
|}
Syllable structure
Most Keresan syllables take a CV(V) shape.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Syllable type
!examples
!translation
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CV
|,
|I have it, left
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CVV
|,
|young boy, cooking pot
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CCV
|
|I'm not fat
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CCVV
|
|bluejay
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CVC
|,
|expression of fear, workmate (Spanish "compañero")
|}
Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters.
- Word-internal cluster: yʼâakạ srûunị 'stomach' > ~
- Word-final coda: úwàakạ 'baby'; > ~
Phonotactics
The only sequence of consonants (i.e. consonant cluster) that occurs in native Keresan words is a sequence of a fricative and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the syllable onset). When the alveolo-palatal consonant occurs as C<sub>1</sub>, it combines with alveolar and palatal C<sub>2</sub>, whereas the retroflex alveolar precedes bilabial and velar C<sub>2</sub>s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially. The language's religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika) both of which are remarkably consistent.
In the Keres spelling system, each symbol represents a single phoneme. The letters ⟨c q z f⟩ and sometimes also ⟨v⟩ are not used. Digraphs represent both palatal consonants (written using a sequence of C and ⟨y⟩), and retroflex consonants, which are represented using a sequence of C and the letter ⟨r⟩. These graphemes used for writing Western Keres are shown between ⟨...⟩ below.
Consonant symbols
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Retroflex
! Velar
!Glottal
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nasal
!<small>voiced</small>
|⟨m⟩
|⟨n⟩
|⟨ny⟩
|
|
|
|-
!<small>glottalized</small>
|⟨mʼ⟩
|⟨nʼ⟩
|⟨nyʼ⟩
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plosive
! <small>voiceless</small>
| ⟨b⟩ || ⟨d⟩ || ⟨dy⟩ || || ⟨g⟩ || ⟨ʼ⟩
|-
! <small>aspirated</small>
| ⟨p⟩ || ⟨t⟩ || ⟨ty⟩ || || ⟨k⟩
|
|-
!<small>ejective</small>
| ⟨pʼ⟩ || ⟨tʼ⟩ || ⟨tyʼ⟩ || || ⟨kʼ⟩
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |Affricate
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|⟨dz⟩
|⟨j⟩
|⟨dr⟩
|
|
|-
!<small>aspirated</small>
|
|⟨ts⟩
|⟨ch⟩
|⟨tr⟩
|
|
|-
!<small>ejective</small>
|
|⟨tsʼ⟩
|⟨chʼ⟩
|⟨trʼ⟩
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! <small>voiceless</small>
| || ⟨s⟩ || ⟨sh⟩|| ⟨sr⟩ ||
| ⟨h⟩
|-
! <small>ejective</small>
| || ⟨sʼ⟩ || ⟨shʼ⟩|| ⟨srʼ⟩ ||
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
! <small>voiced</small>
| ⟨w⟩ || ⟨r⟩|| ⟨y⟩ ||
|
|
|-
! <small>glottalized</small>
| ⟨wʼ⟩ || ⟨rʼ⟩|| ⟨yʼ⟩ || ||
|
|}
Signage at Acoma Pueblo
Signs at Acoma Pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from the symbols above, as shown in the table:
thumb|296x296px|Signage at Acoma Pueblo
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparison between general orthography and the orthography used at Acoma
!General
|⟨pʼ⟩
|⟨tʼ⟩
|⟨kʼ⟩
|⟨sʼ⟩
|⟨tsʼ⟩
|⟨mʼ⟩
|⟨wʼ⟩
|⟨yʼ⟩
|⟨nʼ shʼ srʼ tyʼ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Acoma signage
|⟨ṕ⟩
|⟨t́⟩
|⟨ḱ⟩
|⟨ś⟩
|⟨tś⟩
|⟨ḿ⟩
|⟨ẃ⟩
|⟨ý⟩
|?
|}
Vowel symbols
Vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for Keresan. Each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph (for long vowels and diphthongs). However, there are two competing representations for the vowel . Some versions simply use the IPA ⟨ɨ⟩ whereas others use the letter ⟨v⟩ (the sound as in veal does not occur in Keresan). Voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways; either underlined or with a dot below (see table).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |Long vowels
! colspan="2" |Short vowels
! colspan="2" |Voiceless vowels
|-
!Phoneme
!Grapheme
!Phoneme
!Grapheme
!Phoneme
!Grapheme
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|⟨ii⟩
|
|⟨i⟩
|
|⟨i̱⟩ or ⟨ị⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|⟨ee⟩
|
|⟨e⟩
|
|⟨e̱⟩ or ⟨ẹ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|⟨ɨɨ⟩ or ⟨vv⟩
|
|⟨ɨ⟩ or ⟨v⟩
|
|⟨ɨ̱⟩ or ⟨ṿ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|⟨aa⟩
|
|⟨a⟩
|
|⟨a̱⟩ or ⟨ạ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|⟨oo⟩
|
|⟨o⟩
|
|⟨o̱⟩ or ⟨ọ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|⟨uu⟩
|
|⟨u⟩
|
|⟨u̱⟩ or ⟨ụ⟩
|}
Diacritics for tone
Tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of Keresan. When represented, four diacritics may be used above the vowel. Unlike the system used for Navajo, diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!High tone
!Low tone
!Rising tone
!Falling tone
|-
!Long Vowel
|⟨áa⟩, ⟨úu⟩
|⟨àa⟩, ⟨ùu⟩ or unmarked
|⟨ǎa⟩, ⟨ǔu⟩ or ⟨aá⟩, ⟨uú⟩
|⟨âa⟩, ⟨ûu⟩ or ⟨aà⟩, ⟨uù⟩
|-
!Short Vowel
|⟨á⟩, ⟨ú⟩
|⟨à⟩, ⟨ù⟩ or unmarked
| colspan="2" |-
|}
Keres orthography and alphabetical order
Although Keresan is not normally written, there exists one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order. In this dictionary of Western Keres, digraphs count as single letters, although ejective consonants are not listed separately; occurring after their non-ejective counterparts. The symbol for the glottal stop ⟨ʼ⟩, for long vowels (e.g. ⟨aa ee ii⟩ etc.) are not treated as separate letters.
{| style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS; font-size:1.4em; border-color:#000000; border-width:1px; border-style:solid; border-collapse:collapse; background-color:#F8F8EF"
|+Alphabetical order in the Acoma Keres Audio Dictionary
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |A a
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |B b
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |CH ch
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |CHʼ chʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |D d
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |DR dr
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |DY dy
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |DZ dz
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |E e
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |G g
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |H h
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |I i
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |(Ɨ ɨ)
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |J j
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |K k
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Kʼ kʼ
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |M m
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Mʼ mʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |N n
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Nʼ nʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |NY ny
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |NYʼ nyʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |(O o)
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |P p
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Pʼ pʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |R r
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Rʼ rʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |S s
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Sʼ sʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |SH sh
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |SHʼ shʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |SR sr
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |SRʼ srʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |T tʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TR tr
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TRʼ trʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TS ts
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TSʼ tsʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TY ty
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TYʼ tyʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |U u
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |W w
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |(V v)
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Wʼ wʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Y y
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Yʼ yʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |
|}
Letters〈f q x z〉are not used to write Keres, whereas the letters ⟨ɨ o v⟩ are only used in some dialects.
Sample texts
Orthography marking tone
;Woodpecker and Coyote and whether it occurred or not (polarity). On the other hand, information about when the action took place (i.e. tense) is expressed elsewhere in a clause, mostly by adverbs. Actions that take an object are encoded by transitive verbs, whereas those that take no object are expressed via intransitive verbs.
Intransitive verbs
In Indo-European languages like English, all intransitive verbs behave similarly ('They sneeze/breathe/dive/think'/etc.). In Keresan, actions that take no object are conceptualized in two distinct ways depending on how the initiator of the action is implicated. More active-like intransitive verbs (e.g. 'to sneeze') are coded through one set of morphemes, whereas actions conceptualized as involving the initiator at a lesser degree (e.g. 'to believe') are coded using a separate set of prefixes.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Degrees of involvement of the initiator in Keres are given below. The IPA transcription is based on the authors' description. Underlined consonants in reconstructions refer to uncertainties by the authors regarding aspiration (p. 312); these are shown as capitalized consonants in the IPA.
:{| class="wikitable sortable"
! no. !! gloss !! Proto-Keresan !! IPA
|-
| 10 || wheat || *ʔáṣánɪ ||
|-
| 17 || centipede || *ʔíʔìˑdʸawa ||
|-
| 19 || cholla cactus || *ʔiˑbánɪ ||
|-
| 27 || porcupine || *ʔiˑṣ̍á ||
|-
| 45 || toad || *bêˑrak̠ᴀ ||
|-
| 63 || turkey || *cinᴀ ||
|-
| 64 || fox || *cúsk̠ɪ ||
|-
| 71 || locust || *c̍íˑga ||
|-
| 72 || Zia Pueblo || *c̍íˑy̍á ||
|-
| 78 || kiva || *c̆ídʸá ||
|-
| 83 || medicine man || *č̇áyâˑni ||
|-
| 84 || hawk || *č̇ɨ́ˑríga ||
|-
| 85 || horned toad || *dabínᴜsk̠ᴀ ||
|-
| 87 || Santa Ana Pueblo || *dámáyá ||
|-
| 88 || squash || *dâˑni ||
|-
| 91 || corn husk || *díˑskámí ||
|-
| 93 || dog || *díyᴀ ||
|-
| 98 || bobcat || *dʸáˑdʸᴜ ||
|-
| 101 || deer || *dʸán̍é ||
|-
| 104 || gourd || *dʸáˑwí ||
|-
| 105 || piñon pine || *dʸèic̠ɪ ||
|-
| 108 || elk || *dʸɨ́ˑṣᴀ ||
|-
| 110 || badger || *dʸúˑbí ||
|-
| 112 || beans || *gánami ||
|-
| 114 || seed || *gáwɪc̠ɪ ||
|-
| 119 || bear || *gúháyᴀ ||
|-
| 124 || yucca || *háʔásc̐á ||
|-
| 127 || oak || *ha̍ˑbánɪ ||
|-
| 137 || pine tree || *hâˑniˑ ||
|-
| 147 || Jemez Pueblo || *héˑmíšíˑ-cɪ, *héˑmíšíˑ-zé || ,
|-
| 149 || turtle || *héyᴀdʸɪ ||
|-
| 157 || willow || *híẓᵻsk̍áwa ||
|-
| 158 || dove || *húˑʔùˑga ||
|-
| 161 || yucca fruit || *hùˑsk̍ani ||
|-
| 169 || antelope || *kɨ́ˑc̠ɪ ||
|-
| 175 || wolf || *k̍ákana ||
|-
| 176 || spider || *k̍ámᴀsk̠ᵻ ||
|-
| 198 || mountain lion || *mûˑk̍aiẓᴀ ||
|-
| 200 || buffalo || *múšêiẓᴀ ||
|-
| 201 || soapweed || *múšɪ ||
|-
| 213 || hummingbird || *m̍îˑzᴀ ||
|-
| 225 || prairie dog || *nɨ́t̠ɪ ||
|-
| 232 || bedbug || *peséc̍uru ||
|-
| 239 || salamander || *p̍águra ||
|-
| 241 || rabbit || *rèˑdʸᴀ ||
|-
| 246 || woodpecker || *sbíga ||
|-
| 247 || chicken || *sbíˑná ||
|-
| 251 || meadowlark || *sc̐áˑná ||
|-
| 254 || grasshopper || *sc̐ár̍ɪ ||
|-
| 260 || crow || *sc̐ɨ́r̍á ||
|-
| 262 || wild honey || *sc̐úmᵻ ||
|-
| 264 || mosquito || *sc̐úy̍úˑná ||
|-
| 274 || ant || *síˑʔí ||
|-
| 275 || squirrel || *síˑdʸᴀ ||
|-
| 279 || mouse || *síyan̍ᵻ ||
|-
| 282 || bighorn sheep || *skàˑsk̠ᴜ ||
|-
| 286 || bullsnake || *sk̍áʔáˑdʸᴜ ||
|-
| 287 || fish || *sk̍àˑšᵻ ||
|-
| 291 || peas || *sk̍úrúˑná ||
|-
| 293 || dwarf corn || *spíníní ||
|-
| 306 || parrot || *šâˑwit̠ᴀ ||
|-
| 307 || flea, louse || *šínaˑ ||
|-
| 309 || goose || *šúˑdá ||
|-
| 318 || blue jay || *ṣúisɪ ||
|-
| 319 || snake || *ṣûˑwiˑ ||
|-
| 342 || abalone shell || *w̍a̍ˑbɨ́nɪ ||
|-
| 347 || duck || *w̍âˑyuṣᴀ ||
|-
| 354 || corn silk || *yábášɪ ||
|-
| 355 || corn || *yáˑčínɪ ||
|-
| 356 || mesquite || *yêˑt̠ᴜ ||
|-
| 357 || worm || *yúʔúbɨ́ ||
|-
| 369 || corn cob || *y̍úˑskúm̍á ||
|}
In popular media
Keres was one of the seven languages sung in the Coca-Cola "It's Beautiful" commercial during the 2014 Super Bowl featuring "America the Beautiful".
See also
- Keresan Sign Language
References
Bibliography
External links
- Nathan Romero, "Chochiti Keres: About Me and My Language: The politics of saving a vanishing language: The politics of writing", Language Documentation Training Center, University of Hawaii, Manoa (UHM)
- Grammatical and Lexical Notes on the Keres Language (Acoma-Laguna Dialect) of the Keresan Stock
- English-Queres Language Vocabulary
- Keres Language Project – Keres Audio Dictionary