Kazakhs are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia and Eastern Europe. They share a common culture, language and history that is closely related to those of other Turkic peoples. The majority of ethnic Kazakhs live in their transcontinental nation state of Kazakhstan.

Ethnic Kazakh communities are present in Kazakhstan's border regions in Russia, Kyrgyzstan, northern Uzbekistan, northwestern China (Xinjiang), western Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii), and northern Iran (Golestan).

The Kazakh people were formed as a result of the merging of Mongol, Turkic, and other Eurasian groups between the 13th and 15th centuries. In the 15th century, under the leadership of two sultans Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan Kazakhs founded the Kazakh Khanate, which existed until the mid-19th century.

Etymology

The Kazakhs likely began using the name "Kazakh" during the 15th century. There are many theories on the origin of the word "Kazakh" or "Qazaq". Some speculate that it comes from the Turkic verb ('wanderer, brigand, vagabond, warrior, free, independent') or that it derives from the Proto-Turkic word (a wheeled cart used by the Kazakhs to transport their yurts and belongings).

Another theory on the origin of the word "Kazakh" (or )<!--Don't make a claim here of which spelling is 'original' – this passage is not about how it's spelled in Latin-based scripts--> is that it comes from the ancient Turkic word , first mentioned on the 8th century Turkic monument of Uyuk-Turan. According to Turkic linguist Vasily Radlov and Orientalist Veniamin Yudin, the noun derives from the same root as the verb ('to obtain, to gain'). Therefore, defines a type of person who wanders and seeks gain. Kazakh was a common term throughout medieval Central Asia, generally with regard to individuals or groups who had taken or achieved independence from a figure of authority. Timur described his own youth without direct authority as his ("freedom", "Qazaq-ness").

In Turko-Persian sources, the term Özbek-Qazaq first appeared during the mid-16th century, in the Tarikh-i-Rashidi by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a Chagatayid prince of Kashmir, which locates Kazakh in the eastern part of Desht-i Qipchaq. According to Vasily Bartold, the Kazakhs likely began using that name during the 15th century.

An alternative and historical ethnonym for Kazakhs is "Alash". This name spreads a lot in Kazakh culture. Most commonly, Alash is the group of three jüzes, territorial and tribal divisions of Kazakhs. This word can be used as a synonym to Kazakh. The ethnonym "Alash" also was used to refer to Kazakhs by Nogais.

History

thumb|left|[[Aleksander Orłowski, Two Kazakhs, 1809]]

The Kazakhs are direct descendants of the people of the Ulus of Jochi, who were referred to in sources as Tatars by the Russians and Ottomans; the term Uzbeks later began to be applied to them due to their conversion to Islam under Özbeg Khan (). The Kazakhs emerged as a result of the merging of Mongol, Turkic, and various Eurasian groups in the 13th century on the territory of Desht-i-Kipchak. In the 15th century, under the leadership of two sultans from the Chinggisid dynasty Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan, the Kazakhs founded the Kazakh Khanate, which existed in the eastern part of the Kipchak Steppe until the mid-19th century. The modern Kazakhs form the most direct descendants of the Mongol Empire, along with the modern Mongols, and other Inner Asian nomadic empires.

Seen from a broader perspective, the Kazakhs belonged to the Chinggisid uluses, others being the Shibanid Uzbeks, Crimean Tatars, Manghits/Noghays, and Chaghatays (Moghuls and Timurids), who shared a common language (Turkic), political ideology (based on Mongol traditions), royal lineage (Chinggisids), ethnic identity Turco-Mongols ("Mongol Turks" Turk-i mughūl), and religion (Sunni Islam), and who still dominated much of the vast region stretching from the Crimea in the west to the Tien Shan Mountains in the east, and from southern Siberia in the north to northern India in the south during the post-Mongol period. The Kazakhs are the most northerly of the Central Asian peoples, inhabiting a large expanse of territory in northern Central Asia and southern Siberia known as the Kazakh Steppe. The tribal groups formed a powerful confederation that grew wealthy on the trade passing through the steppe lands along the fabled Silk Road.

At the time of conquest of Central Asia, Abu'l-Khayr Khan, a descendant of Shiban, had disagreements with the sultans Kerei and Janibek, descendants of Urus Khan. These disagreements probably resulted from the crushing defeat of Abu'l-Khayr Khan at the hands of the Oirats. Kerei and Janibek moved with a large following of nomads to the region of Zhetysu on the border of Moghulistan and set up new pastures there with the blessing of the Chagatayid khan of Moghulistan, Esen Buqa II, who hoped for a buffer zone of protection against the expansion of the Oirats.

The division into new ethno-political communities is reflected in the work of Ruzbihān Khān Isfahani, Mihmān-nāma-yi Bukhārā ("The Guest Book of Bukhara"), which states:

During the late 15th and throughout the 16th century, the Kazakhs created a nomadic empire extending westward to the Ural River and eastward to the Tien Shan Mountains

During the reign of the three sons of Kasym Khan, the authority of the khan weakened somewhat, leading to the eventual fragmentation of the Kazakh Khanate into three distinct "hordes": the Great Horde in southeastern Kazakhstan north of the Tien Shan, the Middle Horde in the central steppe near the Aral Sea, and the Little Horde between the Aral Sea and the Ural River. In these regions, the khan's power was often constrained by tribal leaders, known as sultans, and even more so by the beys and batyrs, heads of the clan-based communities. Although the khans nominally commanded a formidable military, their authority relied heavily on the loyalty of these local leaders.]]

The final son of Kasym Khan to rule, Haqnazar, overcame these challenges, reunited the three hordes, and expanded his power beyond the steppes. His reign was marked not only by the reunification of the Kazakh Khanate but also by his aggressive military campaigns, which included systematic raids into Transoxania.

His successors continued these military campaigns, including Tawakul Khan, who briefly captured Samarkand. However, by the early 17th century, the khanate's internal unity once again began to erode, and central power weakened further, leading to a period of fragmentation and the rise of numerous smaller, local rulers. After Tauke's death in 1715/1718, the Kazakh Khanate lost its unity, and the three hordes effectively became separate khanates.

During the 17th century, the Kazakhs fought the Oirats. The early 18th century marked the height of the Kazakh Khanate. During this time, the Little Horde took part in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungar Khanate, following the invasion known as the "Great Disaster." Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs achieved notable victories at the Bulanty River in 1726 and at Añyraqai in 1729. Ablai Khan also played a major role in the wars against the Dzungars during the 1720s–1750s, for which he was honored as a "batyr" ("hero") by the people.

After the death of Galdan Tseren, turmoil began in the Dzungar Khanate, in which the Kazakhs played a notable role in the internecine struggle of the Dzungars. Between 1752 and 1755, the final military clashes took place between the Kazakhs of the Middle Jüz and Dzungar Khanate. During these conflicts, Ablai Sultan supported one side and then the other, becoming involved in their internal wars and leading the army of the Middle Jüz on military campaigns into Dzungaria. Feudal strife, the active involvement of Kazakh rulers in these conflicts, and frequent Kazakh incursions into Dzungaria contributed to the demoralization of Oirat society, the destabilization of khan's authority, and the loss of its capacity for organized defense. As a result, the Qing Empire encountered little serious resistance in 1755, destroying the last nomadic empire in the history of Central Asia.

In 1756–1757, battles took place between Kazakh military detachments and the large armies of the Qing Empire. Heavy and bloody fighting occurred in the northeastern part of the region and in Jetisu. However, due to the enemy’s significant numerical and technological superiority, Ablai was forced in the summer of 1757 to cease hostilities and begin negotiations with the Qing command to conclude peace and establish relations with the new southeastern neighbor.

The fall of the Dzungar Khanate altered the balance of power in Central Asia. For a time, the Kazakh khanates became the most dominant political and military force in the region of Inner Asia. At the same time, the positions of the Russian Empire and Qing China strengthened, and they began to shape the system of international relations in the northwestern part of Central Asia.

  • Kazakh –&nbsp;, /kazax/
  • Cossack –&nbsp;, /kazak/

The Ukrainian term Cossack probably comes from the same Kipchak etymological root, meaning wanderer, brigand, or independent free-booter.

Oral history

Like many people who live a nomadic lifestyle, Kazakhs keep an epic tradition of oral history which goes back centuries. It is most commonly relayed in the form of song (kyi) and poetry (zhyr), which typically tell the stories of Kazakh national heroes.

Language

The Kazakh language is a member of the Turkic language family, as are Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Uyghur, Turkmen, modern Turkish, Azerbaijani and many other living and historical languages spoken in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Xinjiang, and Siberia.

Kazakh belongs to the Kipchak (Northwestern) group of the Turkic language family. Kazakh is characterized, in distinction to other Turkic languages, by the presence of in place of reconstructed proto-Turkic and in place of ; furthermore, Kazakh has where other Turkic languages have .

Kazakh, like most of the Turkic language family lacks phonemic vowel length, and as such there is no distinction between long and short vowels.

Kazakh was written with the Arabic script until the mid-19th century, when a number of educated Kazakh poets from Muslim madrasahs incited a revolt against Russia. Russia's response was to set up secular schools and devise a way of writing Kazakh with the Cyrillic alphabet, which was not widely accepted. By 1917, the Arabic script for Kazakh was reintroduced, even in schools and local government.

In 1927, a Kazakh nationalist movement sprang up against the Soviet Union but was soon suppressed. As a result, the Arabic script for writing Kazakh was banned and the Latin alphabet was imposed as a new writing system. In an effort to Russianize the Kazakhs, the Latin alphabet was in turn replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1940 by Soviet interventionists. Today, there are efforts to return to the Latin script, and in January 2021 the government announced plans to switch to the Latin alphabet.

Kazakh is a state (official) language in Kazakhstan. It is also spoken in the Ili region of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China, where the Arabic script is used, and in western parts of Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii and Khovd province), where Cyrillic script is in use. European Kazakhs use the Latin alphabet.

Genetic studies

thumb|Population structure of Turkic-speaking populations in the context of their geographic neighbors across Eurasia.

Genomic research confirmed that Kazakhs originated from the admixture of several tribes. Kazakhs have predominantly East Eurasian ancestry, and harbor two East Asian-derived components: one dominant component commonly found among Northeastern Asian populations (associated with the Northeast Asian "Devil's Gate Cave" sample from the Amur region), and another minor component associated with historical Yellow River farmers, peaking among northern Han Chinese. According to one study, West Eurasian related admixture among Kazakhs is estimated at 35% to 37.5% in two Kazakh populations. Another study estimated a lower average Western admixture of slightly less than 30%. These results are inline with historical demographic information on northern Central Asia.

Neighboring Karakalpaks, Kyrgyz, Tubalar, and the Xinjiang Ölöd tribe, have the strongest resemblance to the Kazakh genome.

According to the latest research of population genetics, mainly of autosomal markers and Y-chromosome polymorphism, it is believed that during the 13th to 15th centuries that the Kazakh ethnicity emerged. Anthropological studies, such as those by Orazak Ismagulov, show that the Kazakhs, who formed in the 13th century, are indistinguishable from the nomadic peoples of the Golden Horde. This is further supported by cluster analysis conducted by L.T. Yablonsky, who found that Kazakhs are genetically closest to the nomads of the Golden Horde (Lower Volga), while modern Tatars, Uzbeks, and Chuvash are more closely related to the urban population of that period.

The traditional genealogy (shezhire) among Kazakhs is organized along the male line (following a patrilineal principle), where clan origin is passed from father to son. Modern genetic studies based on Y-chromosome analysis confirm the correspondence between the clan system and the patrilineal genetic structure of the Kazakh population.

A 2020 genetic study on the Kazakh genome, by Seidualy et al., found that the Kazakh people formed from highly mixed historical Central Asian populations. Ethnic Kazakhs were modeled to derive about 63.2% ancestry from an East Asian-related population, specifically from a Northeast Asian source sample (Devil's Gate 1), 30.8% ancestry from European-related populations (presumably from Scythians), and ~6% ancestry from a broadly South Asian population. Overall, Kazakhs show their closest genetic affinity with other Central Asian populations, namely the Kalmyks, Karakalpaks, Kyrgyz, and Altaians, but also Mongolians and Tuvans.

A genetic study published in the journal Nature in 2021 showed that Western Kazakh tribal groups belonging to the Alshin union share common patrilineal (father-to-son) roots. The study analyzed 40 SNP and 17 STR markers on the Y-chromosome in 330 Western Kazakh individuals. This revealed a high degree of relatedness within haplogroup C2a1a2-M48. Three independent lines of analysis indicated that the Alimuly and Bayuly clans share a common ancestor who lived approximately 650 years ago, identified in the shezhire as Emir Alau. According to the study, roughly two-thirds of Western Kazakhs may descend from this lineage. The research also noted the accumulation of specific haplogroups in subclans of other lineages, confirming the correspondence between the traditional clan structure and the genetic structure of the steppe population. Today, the Alshin population exceeds 2 million people, and approximately 1.5 million Western Kazakhs are carriers of haplogroup C2a1a2-M48, Y15552. This supports the genealogy connecting them to their common ancestor, Emir Alau, and reinforces the traditional concept of patrilineal descent.

A total of 464 representatives of the Western Kazakh tribes of Kazakhstan (Western Kazakhs, n = 405) and Uzbekistan (Karakalpakstan Kazakhs, n = 59) were examined by the Yfiler Plus set. The data are available in the YHRD under accession numbers YA006010 and YA006009. Genetic analysis (AMOVA and MDS) did not show significant differences between the two groups (Kazakhstan and Karakalpakstan Kazakhs) in terms of Y-chromosome diversity. Both groups are characterized by haplogroup C2a1a2 as a founder effect, which dominated two of the three tribes: Alimuly (67%), Baiuly (74.6%), and Zhetiru (25.8%).

The study analyzed haplotype variation at 15 Y-chromosomal short-tandem-repeats obtained from 1171 individuals from 24 tribes representing the three socio-territorial subdivisions (Senior, Middle and Junior zhuz) in Kazakhstan to comprehensively characterize the patrilineal genetic architecture of the Kazakh Steppe. In total, 577 distinct haplotypes were identified belonging to one of 20 haplogroups; 16 predominant haplogroups were confirmed by SNP-genotyping. The haplogroup distribution was skewed towards C2-M217, present in all tribes at a global frequency of 51.9%. The structure analysis of the 1164 individuals indicated the presence of 20 ancestral groups and a complex three-subclade organization of the C2-M217 haplogroup in Kazakhs, a result supported by the multidimensional scaling analysis. Additionally, while the majority of the haplotypes and tribes overlapped, a distinct cluster of the O2 haplogroup, mostly of the Naiman tribe, was observed.

Maternal lineages

According to mitochondrial DNA studies (where sample consisted of only 246 individuals), the main maternal lineages of Kazakhs are: D (17.9%), C (16%), G (16%), A (3.25%), F (2.44%) of East-Eurasian origin (55%), and haplogroups H (14.1), T (5.5), J (3.6%), K (2.6%), U5 (3%), and others (12.2%) of West-Eurasian origin (41%).

Gokcumen et al. (2008) tested the mtDNA of a total of 237 Kazakhs from Altai Republic and found that they belonged to the following haplogroups: D(xD5) (15.6%), C (10.5%), F1 (6.8%), B4 (5.1%), G2a (4.6%), A (4.2%), B5 (4.2%), M(xC, Z, M8a, D, G, M7, M9a, M13) (3.0%), D5 (2.1%), G2(xG2a) (2.1%), G4 (1.7%), N9a (1.7%), G(xG2, G4) (0.8%), M7 (0.8%), M13 (0.8%), Y1 (0.8%), Z (0.4%), M8a (0.4%), M9a (0.4%), and F2 (0.4%) for a total of 66.7% mtDNA of Eastern Eurasian origin or affinity and H (10.5%), U(xU1, U3, U4, U5) (3.4%), J (3.0%), N1a (3.0%), R(xB4, B5, F1, F2, T, J, U, HV) (3.0%), I (2.1%), U5 (2.1%), T (1.7%), U4 (1.3%), U1 (0.8%), K (0.8%), N1b (0.4%), W (0.4%), U3 (0.4%), and HV (0.4%) for a total of 33.3% mtDNA of West-Eurasian origin or affinity. Comparing their samples of Kazakhs from Altai Republic with samples of Kazakhs from Kazakhstan and Kazakhs from Xinjiang, the authors have noted that "haplogroups A, B, C, D, F1, G2a, H, and M were present in all of them, suggesting that these lineages represent the common maternal gene pool from which these different Kazakh populations emerged."

Most Russian Kazakhs live along the Russian-Kazakh border. The largest communities live in Astrakhan (149,415), Orenburg (120,262), Omsk (78,303), and Saratov Oblast (76,007).

In a number of regions, there are several dozen schools where the Kazakh language is taught as a separate subject, however, secondary education in the Kazakh language is not available in Russia.

In Russia, the Kazakh population lives primarily in the regions bordering Kazakhstan. According to latest census (2002) there are 654,000 Kazakhs in Russia, most of whom are in the Astrakhan, Volgograd, Saratov, Samara, Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Altai Krai and Altai Republic regions. Though ethnically Kazakh, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, those people acquired Russian citizenship.

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Ethnic Kazakhs of Russia<br />

! align="left" |1939!!%!!1959!!%!!1970!!%!!1979!!%!!1989!!%!!2002!!%!!2010!!%

!2020

!%<sup>1</sup>

|-

| align="left" | 356 646 ||0.33|| 382 431 ||0.33|| 477 820 ||0.37|| 518 060 ||0.38|| 635 865 ||0.43|| 653 962||0.45||647 732||0.45

|591 970

|0.45

|-

| colspan="16" |<sup>1</sup>:of those who responded

|}

China

thumb|Kazakhs in [[Xinjiang, China, 1987]]

Kazakhs migrated into Dzungaria in the 18th century after the Dzungar genocide resulted in the native Buddhist Dzungar Oirat population being massacred.

Kazakhs, called "" in Chinese () are among 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. According to the census data of 2020, Kazakhs had a population of 1,562,518, ranking 18th among all ethnic groups in China. Thousands of Kazakhs fled to China during the 1932–1933 famine in Kazakhstan.

In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui led by General Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left.

From Northern Xinjiang, over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating Kazakhs to designated pastureland in Qinghai, but Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash against each other. Tibetans attacked and fought against the Kazakhs as they entered Tibet via Gansu and Qinghai. In northern Tibet, Kazakhs clashed with Tibetan soldiers, and the Kazakhs were sent to Ladakh. Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.

In 1934, 1935, and from 1936 to 1938, Qumil Elisqan led approximately 18,000 Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu, entering Gansu and Qinghai.

In China there is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture, the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and three Kazakh autonomous counties: Aksai Kazakh Autonomous County in Gansu, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County and Mori Kazakh Autonomous County in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.

At least one million Uyghurs, Kazakhs and other Muslims in Xinjiang have been detained in mass detention camps, termed "reeducation camps", aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs. But authorities in China have defended that the detention centers were in fact vocational education & training centers set up to deradicalize radicalized residents against the "3 evil forces" of religious extremism, terrorism and separatism.

Mongolia

thumb|alt=Mounted hunters in traditional dress|Kazakh hunters with eagles in [[Bayan-Ölgii Province, Mongolia]]

In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire troops pushed Kazakhs to neighboring countries. In around 1860, part of the Middle Jüz Kazakhs came to Mongolia and were allowed to settle down in Bayan-Ölgii, Western Mongolia; for most of the 20th century they remained an isolated, tightly knit community.

Ethnic Kazakhs (so-called Altaic Kazakhs or Altai-Kazakhs) live predominantly in Western Mongolia in Bayan-Ölgii Province (88.7% of the total population) and Khovd Province (11.5% of the total population, mostly in Khovd city, Khovd and Buyant sums). Additionally, a number of Kazakh communities can be found in various cities and towns spread throughout the country. Some of the major population centers with a significant Kazakh presence include Ulaanbaatar (90% in khoroo #4 of Nalaikh düüreg), Töv and Selenge provinces, Erdenet, Darkhan, Bulgan, Sharyngol (17.1% of population total) and Berkh cities.

Kazakhs face prejudice and discrimination in Mongolia. For example, Mongolian president Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat made remarks near the end of his term in 1997 about his intention to sterilise all Kazakhs in Mongolia if they refused to leave the country within 24 hours. His remarks were received negatively by the press and human rights organisations. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) has set frameworks to put an end to online discrimination of minorities as part of their programs in Mongolia, and in 2017 the OHCHR reported a temporary cessation of ethnic tensions. Fears over the reemergence of tensions have been raised due to funding cuts to the OHCHR's programs.<br />

!1956!!%!!1963!!%!!1969!!%!!1979!!%!!1989!!%!!2000!!%!!2010||%||2020||%

|-

|36,729||4.34||47,735||4.69||62,812||5.29||84,305||5.48||120,506||6.06||102,983||4.35||101,526||3.69||120,999||3.81

|}

United States

Uzbekistan

As of the beginning of 2021, more than 821,000 ethnic Kazakhs lived in Uzbekistan. They live mostly in Karakalpakstan and northern Uzbekistan.

Iran

During the Qajar period, Iran bought Kazakh slaves who were falsely masqueraded as Kalmyks by Khivan and Turkmen slave traders.

Kazakhs of the Aday tribe inhabited the border regions of the Russian Empire with Iran since the 18th century. The Kazakhs made up 20% of the population of the Trans-Caspian region according to the 1897 census. As a result of the Kazakhs' rebellion against the Russian Empire in 1870, a significant number of Kazakhs became refugees in Iran.

Iranian Kazakhs live mainly in Golestan Province in northern Iran. According to ethnologue.org, in 1982 there were 3000 Kazakhs living in the city of Gorgan. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the number of Kazakhs in Iran decreased because of emigration to their historical motherland.

Afghanistan

Kazakhs fled to Afghanistan in the 1930s escaping Bolshevik persecution. Kazakh historian Gulnar Mendikulova cites that there were between 20,000 and 24,000 Kazakhs in Afghanistan as of 1978. Some assimilated locally and cannot speak the Kazakh language.

As of 2021, there are about 200 Kazakhs remaining in Afghanistan according to Kazakhstan's foreign ministry. Locals claim that many live in Kunduz and others in Takhar Province, Baghlan Province, Mazar-i-Sharif and Kabul. Kayseri, Van, Amasya, Çiçekdağ, Gaziantep, Tokat, Urfa, and Serinyol received via Adana the Pakistan-based Kazakh, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbek refugees numbering 3,800 with UNHCR assistance.

In 1954 and 1969, Kazakhs migrated into Anatolia's Salihli, Develi and Altay regions. Turkey became home to refugee Kazakhs.

The Kazakh Turks Foundation (Kazak Türkleri Vakfı) is an organization of Kazakhs in Turkey.

Culture

Cuisine

thumb|200px|A platter of [[horse meat served traditionally as an appetizer.]]

Traditional Kazakh cuisine revolves around lamb and horse meat, as well as a variety of dairy milk products. For hundreds of years, Kazakhs were herders who raised fat-tailed sheep, Bactrian camels, and horses, relying on these animals for transportation, clothing, and food. The cooking techniques and major ingredients have been strongly influenced by the nation's nomadic way of life. For example, most cooking techniques are aimed at long-term preservation of food. There is a large practice of salting and drying meat so that it will last, and there is a preference for sour milk, as it is easier to save in a nomadic lifestyle.

Besbarmak, a dish consisting of boiled horse or lamb meat, is the most popular Kazakh dish. Besbarmak is usually eaten with a boiled pasta sheet, and a meat broth called shorpa, and is traditionally served in Kazakh bowls called kese. Other popular meat dishes are Qazı (which is a horse meat sausage that only the wealthy could afford), shuzhuk (horse meat sausages), kuyrdak (also spelled kuirdak, a dish made from roasted horse, sheep, or cow offal, such as heart, liver, kidneys, and other organs, diced and served with onions and peppers), and various horse delicacies, such as zhal (smoked lard from horse's neck) and zhaya (salted and smoked meat from horse's hip and hind leg). Pilaf (palaw) is the most common Kazakh rice dish, with vegetables (carrots, onions, or garlic) and chunks of meat. The national drinks are kumys (fermented mare's milk) and tea.

Folklore

thumb|upright=1.2|right|[[Jani Beg of the Golden Horde, depicted in the Catalan Atlas (1375), with the flag 23px "Here resides the emperor of this northern region whose empire starts in the province of Bulgaria and ends at the city of Organcio. The sovereign is named Jambech, Lord of the Sarra."]]

The vast majority of Kazakh folklore materials related to the medieval period of Eurasian history are associated with specific historical figures of the Ulus of Jochi. Among the most popular characters of Kazakh narrative folklore are Genghis Khan (1206–1227), his eldest son Khan Jochi (? – c. 1227), the khans Batu (1243–1255), Jani Beg (1342–1357), and Tokhtamysh (1380–1406), Urus Khan (1368–1377), Edigu (early 1390s–1419), and the Samarkand emir Timur (Tamerlane) (1370–1405), who founded the Timurid state in Transoxiana.

In a comprehensive analysis of the corpus of Kazakh folklore from the 18th to early 20th centuries, Jani Beg Khan appears as either the main hero or one of the central figures in the largest number of oral traditions, legends, epics, and tales of the Kazakh steppe nomads, devoted to the socio-political and cultural history of their ancestral past in the medieval period.

During Jani Beg’s reign, Islam spread not only in the western part of the White Horde within the Ulus of Jochi, but also in its eastern territories, which is also reflected in Kazakh epics, tales, and legends. According to the testimony of I. G. Andreev, recorded in 1782–1785 in the Tarbagatai region “from oral accounts” of clan elders of the Nayman tribe of the Middle Zhuz, Jani Beg was considered, after Genghis Khan and his closest descendants, "the most renowned of all" in the "Great and Little Bukharias" and adjacent steppe regions; it was also reported that he "ruled in Turkestan and introduced the Muhammadan law among them." According to other materials recorded from local Naymans, in folklore texts Khan Jani Beg is presented not only as a "ruler," but also as the "founder of the city of Turkestan, …better known as Hazrat." According to Kazakh accounts, it was from there that he allegedly “enlightened them with the faith of Muhammad".

An important narrative tradition of the Kazakhs is "Alasha Khan", which appears in oral narratives as the first Kazakh khan. According to Zh. Sabitov, the figure of Alasha Khan may correspond to Urus Khan.

Religion

In the late 14th century, the Golden Horde propagated Islam in its state. Islam in Kazakhstan peaked during the era of the Kazakh Khanate, especially under rulers such as Kasym Khan and Ablai Khan. Another wave of conversions among the Kazakhs occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries via the efforts of Sufi orders. During the 18th century, Russian influence toward the region rapidly increased throughout Central Asia. Led by Catherine, the Russians initially demonstrated a willingness in allowing Islam to flourish as Muslim clerics were invited into the region to preach to the Kazakhs, whom the Russians viewed as "savages" and "ignorant" of morals and ethics. However, Russian policy gradually changed toward weakening Islam by introducing pre-Islamic elements of collective consciousness. Such attempts included methods of eulogizing pre-Islamic historical figures and imposing a sense of inferiority by sending Kazakhs to highly elite Russian military institutions. During the Soviet era, Muslim institutions survived only in areas that Kazakhs significantly outnumbered non-Muslims, such as non-indigenous Russians, by everyday Muslim practices. In an attempt to conform Kazakhs into Communist ideologies, gender relations and other aspects of Kazakh culture were key targets of social change. and even more devotedly in the countryside. Those who claim descent from the original Muslim soldiers and missionaries of the 8th-century command substantial respect in their communities. Kazakh political figures have also stressed the need to sponsor Islamic awareness. For example, the Kazakh Foreign Affairs Minister, Marat Tazhin, recently emphasized that Kazakhstan attaches importance to the use of "positive potential Islam, learning of its history, culture and heritage."

According to the 2009 Kazakhstani national census, 39,172 ethnic Kazakhs are Christians (0.4% of all Kazakhstani Kazakhs).

Although mostly Sunni, many ethnic Kazakhs in Iran converted to Shia Islam after having settled among Persian and Turkmen Shia Muslims in Golestan. Shia Kazakhs were culturally indistinguishable from Sunni Kazakhs except by religion.

Traditions

Kazakhs are known for their hospitality, and so many Kazakh traditions are based on this ethnic feature. Some traditions have been lost, but some have been rediscovered. Below are some of the traditions that continue to play a role in the modern Kazakh society:

Konakasy (Kazakh: қонақасы; "konak" – guest, "as" – food) – a tradition to welcome a guest and make his stay as enjoyable as one can by providing food, lodge, entertainment. Depending on the circumstances under which a guest had come from, he is either called "arnayy konak" (Kazakh: арнайы қонақ) – a specially invited guest, "kudayy konak" (Kazakh: құдайы қонақ) – a casual traveller, or "kydyrma konak" (Kazakh: қыдырма қонақ) – an unexpected visitor.

Shildehana (Kazakh: шілдехана) – celebration of a birth of a child.

Music

One of the most commonly used traditional musical instruments of the Kazakhs is the dombra, a plucked lute with two strings. It is often used to accompany solo or group singing. Another popular instrument is kobyz, a bow instrument played on the knees. Along with other instruments, both instruments play a key role in the traditional Kazakh orchestra. A notable composer is Kurmangazy, who lived in the 19th century. After studying in Moscow, Gaziza Zhubanova became the first woman classical composer in Kazakhstan, whose compositions reflect Kazakh history and folklore. A notable singer of the Soviet epoch is Roza Rymbaeva, she was a star of the trans-Soviet-Union scale. A notable Kazakh rock band is Urker, performing in the genre of ethno-rock, which synthesises rock music with the traditional Kazakh music.

Clan structure

[[File:Map of the Kazakh tribes in the 20th century.png|thumb|250px|Map of the settlement of Kazakh tribes in the early 20th century<br>

]]

Kazakh clan structure is passed down through the paternal line, from father to son. According to oral genealogies, Kazakh tribes are considered the descendants of the emirs of the Golden Horde, who, according to the genealogy (shezhire), are regarded as their ancestors.

A genetic study published in Nature in 2021 revealed that the western Kazakh tribal groups, which belong to the Alshyn alliance (Alimuly, Baiuly), share common patrilineal roots. Three independent lines of analysis demonstrated that these groups have a common ancestor who lived approximately 650 years ago, believed to be Emir Alau according to the shezhire. Today, the population of the Alshyn tribe exceeds 2 million people. The study further indicated that about 1.5 million western Kazakhs carry the Y-chromosome haplogroup C2a1a2-M48, Y15552, which supports the genealogy linking them to the common ancestor Emir Alau, who lived about 650 years ago. This also supports traditional views on their patrilineal ancestry and genealogy.

Origin of Kazakh Tribes and сlans

According to Canadian historian Joo-Yup Lee, modern Kazakhs are composed of:

  • Tribes of Mongol origin: Dulat, Manghuts, Kunayrats, Uysun and others.
  • Tribes of non-Mongol or Mongol or Turkic origin, but from the Mongolian steppes: Jalayir, Kerei, Naimans and others.
  • Indigenous Turkic tribes from the Kipchak steppes: Kipchak, Kangly and others.
  • Newly formed or emerging tribes of the Mongol Empire: Argyn and others.

Some scholars have suggested that certain Kazakh tribes of the Senior Zhuz originate from Moghulistan, and that the Usun and Kipchak tribal unions formed the basis for the Senior Zhuz and Middle Zhuz, respectively, while the Junior Zhuz traces its roots to the Nogai tribes that joined the Kazakh Khanate. However, such theories were formulated without considering the data from shezhire (genealogical records) and modern genetic studies of polymorphisms.

According to shezhire data and genetic research, the Kazakh Uysun (including the Dulat clan within them) are not related to the Mughals or the Mughal Dulat, nor to the Western Turkic Dulu tribal union. Analysis of the shezhire shows that the Dulat within the Uysun belong to a common C2 haplogroup cluster, and their genealogy is genetically confirmed, tracing back to Maiky-biy, who lived in the 13th century in the Ulus of Jochi.

There is much debate surrounding the origins of the Hordes. Their age in extant historical texts is unknown, with the earliest mentions in the 17th century. The Turkologist Velyaminov-Zernov believed that it was the capture of the important cities of Tashkent, Yasi, and Sayram in 1598 by Tevvekel (Tauekel/Tavakkul) Khan that separated the Qazaqs, as they possessed the cities for only part of the 17th century. The theory suggests that the Qazaqs then divided among a wider territory after expanding from Zhetysu into most of the Dasht-i Qipchaq, with a focus on the trade available through the cities of the middle Syr Darya, to which Sayram and Yasi belonged. The Junior juz originated from the Nogais of the Nogai Horde.

SENIOR ZHUZ:

  • Alban
  • Zhalayir
  • Dulat
  • Oshakty
  • Sary-Uysun
  • Sirgeli
  • Suan
  • Shanyshkyly
  • Kangly
  • Shaksham
  • Shapyrashty
  • Ysty

MIDDLE ZHUZ:

  • Argyn
  • Kerei
  • Qongyrat
  • Qypshaq
  • Naiman
  • Uaq
  • Tarakty

JUNIOR ZHUZ:

  • Alimuly
  • Shekty
  • Shomekei
  • Tortkara
  • Kete
  • Karakesek
  • Karasakal

<br>

  • Baiuly
  • Adai
  • Baibakty
  • Bersh
  • Taz
  • Sherkesh
  • Maskar
  • Tana
  • Kyzylkurt
  • Altyn
  • Zhappas
  • Ysyk
  • Esentemir
  • Alasha

<br>

  • Zhetiru
  • Tabyn
  • Zhagalbayly
  • Kereit
  • Tama
  • Teleu
  • Kerderi
  • Ramadan

Kazakhs in philately

In 1933, the Soviet Union issued an ethnographic postage stamp series titled "Peoples of the USSR". One of the stamps in the series was dedicated to the Kazakh people.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="120">

File:2000_Stamp_of_Kazakhstan_-_Abylai_Khan.jpg|Abylai Khan

File:Stamp of Kazakhstan 649-650.jpg|Kenesary Kasymov

File:Stamps_of_Kazakhstan,_2011-22.jpg|Dina Nurpeisova Painting by K. Telzhanov:

File:The Soviet Union 1933 CPA 411 stamp (Peoples of the Soviet Union. Kazakhs).jpg|"Peoples of the USSR" series (Kazakhs), Soviet stamp from 1933

File:Stamp of Kazakhstan 093.jpg|K. Telzhanov: Kokpar (traditional Kazakh horseback game) 1960.

KyzKuu rev N.jpg|Kazakhstan commemorative coin "Kyz Kuu" from the series "National Rites and Games", 2008

File:Stamp_of_Kazakhstan_442.jpg|Töle Biy

File:Stamp_of_Kazakhstan_443.jpg|Kazybek Biy

File:Stamp_of_Kazakhstan_444.jpg|Aiteke Biy

File:Stamps_of_Kazakhstan,_2010-16.jpg|Baurzhan Momyshuly

File:Aliya_Moldagulova_stamp.jpg|Aliya Moldagulova

File:Saken_Seifullin_2019_stamp_of_Kazakhstan.jpg|Saken Seifullin

File:Stamps_of_Kazakhstan,_2009-27.jpg|Birzhan-sal

File:Musrepov.jpg|Gabit Musrepov

File:ToktarAwbakirov_140x190.jpg|Toktar Aubakirov

File:Roza_Baglanova_2022_stamp_of_Kazakhstan.jpg|Roza Baglanova

File:Ilyas Zhansugurov 2019 stamp of Kazakhstan.jpg|Ilyas Zhansugurov

File:Magzhan Zhumabai 2018 stamp of Kazakhstan.jpg|Magzhan Zhumabayev

</gallery>

See also

  • Ethnic demography of Kazakhstan
  • Kazakh diaspora
  • Shala Kazakhs

Notes

References

Sources

  • Kazakh tribes
  • 'Contemporary Falconry in Altai-Kazakh in Western Mongolia'<nowiki />The International Journal of Intangible Heritage (vol. 7), pp.&nbsp;103–111. 2012. IJIH
  • 'Ethnographic Study of Altaic Kazakh Falconers', Falco: The Newsletter of the Middle East Falcon Research Group 41, pp.&nbsp;10–14. 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20151017084620/http://www.mefrg.org/images/falco/falco41.pdf]
  • 'Ethnoarchaeology of Ancient Falconry in East Asia', The Asian Conference on Cultural Studies 2013 – Official Conference Proceedings, pp.&nbsp;81–95. 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141218143204/http://www.iafor.org/offprints/acas2013-offprints/ACAS_2013_Offprint_0108.pdf]
  • Soma, Takuya. 2014. 'Current Situation and Issues of Transhumant Animal Herding in Sagsai County, Bayan Ulgii Province, Western Mongolia', E-journal GEO 9(1): pp.&nbsp;102–119. [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ejgeo/9/1/9_102/_pdf]
  • Soma, Takuya. 2015. Human and Raptor Interactions in the Context of a Nomadic Society: Anthropological and Ethno-Ornithological Studies of Altaic Kazakh Falconry and its Cultural Sustainability in Western Mongolia. University of Kassel Press, Kassel (Germany) .