The Kadazan people, or simply the Kadazan, are an Austronesian ethnic group indigenous to Sabah, Malaysia. They primarily live in the West Coast Division, in the districts of Kota Kinabalu, Penampang, Putatan and Papar, the surrounding areas, and various locations in the Interior Division, such as Beaufort and Membakut, as well as, to a lesser extent, the eastern Kadazan of Labuk-Kinabatangan, as well as in the Federal Territory of Labuan.

The Kadazan form another major indigenous ethnic group along the western coast of Sabah with rich traditional heritage, distinct attires, language and customs, with an estimated 568,575 (combined with the Dusun) spread across the state. They are among the earliest indigenous peoples on northern Borneo exposed to the early Christian mission and faced various interactions with the Sultanate of Brunei in the 18th century and later the British that resulted in their rapid subsequent modernisation in the late 19th century, when many of the British administration towns within North Borneo were constructed near many of the settlements of the Kadazan. The majority of the Kadazan are Roman Catholics, though traditional culture remains important to the community, with their adat (customs) recognised by the Native Court of Sabah.

As a result of integration in culture and language, as well as for political initiatives, the new term "Kadazan-Dusun" was created to combine Kadazan and Dusun as a single group. Together, they are the largest indigenous ethnic group in Sabah. They have been internationally recognised as an indigenous group found on the northern part of the island of Borneo since 2004 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Etymology

The term "Kadazan" is believed to have emerged much earlier, as this term was widely used around the 1880s by Roman Catholic Christian missionaries, as documented by Fr. J. Staal. The origin of the term "Kadazan" came from the Dusun word kakadayan, and it was adapted by Kadazan speakers as kakadazan, which carries the meaning of "town" in the English language. Another theory is that the term is derived from the Malay word kedaian or kedai, which translates as "shops" or "shop" respectively. The Kadazan of Penampang and Papar were officially referred to by the tax collector of the Sultanate of Brunei as Orang Dusun, a common noun phrase which literally means "people of the orchard", owing to their agricultural occupations, similar to the Dusun, although in reality, the Orang Dusun within the area were actually Kadazan.

Before the 1960s, the Kadazan were earlier grouped together with other Dusunic tribes in the North Borneo Census as the term "Dusun" was used by the British protectorate and colonial authorities to represent all Dusunic-speaking tribes and sub-tribes in North Borneo. The present-day ethnic group of Kadazan was originally called Tangara or Tanga, who refused to be grouped into the larger Dusun grouping due to past issues throughout the British colonial rule. Ruling Muslim political parties had openly extended political and economic privileges to Kadazan Christians who converted to Islam, as well as to the non-Christians, in the hope that the non-Muslim community would embrace the latter religion, while maintaining a strict and permanent disregard for the 20-point agreement that forms the basis of the Malaysia Agreement for those who wish to return to their former religion. and with locally unique modifications and nuances as well as the particular use of locally available organic ingredients, particularly wild mango, taro, ginger, lemongrass, key lime and fish. Contemporary Kadazan food has been influenced by Chinese, Malay, Filipino and other native cuisines as well as international trends, and often sees the use of traditional ingredients interpreted in new and novel ways. For example, bambangan is available as an ice cream flavour. Chicken lihing soup, or sup manuk nansak miampai lihing in the Kadazan language, is popular among Chinese and Kadazan communities alike. Lihing is also used in marinades, local variants of sambal relishes and is used as a flavouring for stir-fried noodles. Tangy and pungent flavours from souring agents or fermentation techniques are key characteristics of Kadazan cuisine, as seen in dishes such as nonsom, pinongizan, hinava, and liniking. Kadazan comfort food ranges from a simple side dish like tinutuk mangga<nowiki/>' (unripe mango mixed with anchovies, shallots, chillies and salt) to a variety of pickled foods collectively known as nonsom. This dish is served at certain Sabah coffeehouses and restaurants, especially those that offer traditional Kadazan menus.

Nanggiu is a refreshing traditional treat of Kadazan sweet dessert, close to Malay air batu campur (ABC), cendol, Filipino samalamig and Vietnamese chè thái. Nanggiu is made from sago pearls cooked in sweet coconut milk with fragrant pandan leaves. Hinompuka'<nowiki/> is the most well-known Kadazan confection, it is a rice cake made from glutinous rice flour mixed with palm sugar, the mixture is wrapped in banana leaf and steamed until fully cooked. The use of banana leaf does not only help retain moisture but also impart a subtle earthy aroma to the dessert. With its rich, chewy texture and sweetness, hinompuka'<nowiki/> remains a cherished delicacy among the Kadazan community, often served alongside other traditional snacks during various social events, particularly festive gatherings and celebratory occasions. Its rich flavour and cultural significance make it a popular treat at birthday parties, weddings and communal feasts. The Kadazan of Papar are known for their hininggazang and pinompol, or pinompo, a snack made from sago flour with sliced bananas, grated coconut and sugar; the latter is a sweet and soft snack with a crusty fried texture and is mixed with sago powder and sugar, usually mixed with cheese, mayonnaise or banana. Another popular traditional dish is pinasakan sada'<nowiki/>, a preserved fish stew commonly made using saltwater or freshwater fish, typically small species. The fish is braised for hours with takob akob or tulod ulod (unripe bilimbi), along with turmeric, salt and sometimes grated tuhau. Pinasakan sada is one of the most common dishes associated with the Kadazan, with several versions such as pinasakan sada' sapat and pinasakan sada' bambangan. It is known for its distinctively sour and slightly oily flavour, and is usually eaten with plain rice as a staple accompaniment. Alternatively, it may be marinated in vinegar and salt, where it is often served as a side dish. It is valued not only for its strong aroma and distinctive taste but also its cultural significance in Kadazan cuisine. Sinalau vogok, often sold at roadside stalls, is known for its smoky flavour. It is made of regular pork (different from wild boar meat sinalau bakas), usually dressed with soy sauce or chilli sauce, and it is often served with rice or as a snack. As a result of the ban on wild boar hunting activities in Malaysia, regular pork has become the substitute for sinalau bakas, though the actual sinalau bakas may still be sold in the interior of Sabah. Another variant of sinalau bakas, or smoked wild boar meat, is sinalau bakas panggang, which is sinalau bakas grilled for immediate eating. For barbecue flavour enhancement, the Kadazan traditionally use a basting method with sogumau, brushing it over the meat. The bulb of the sogumau is beaten with a hard object, typically a losung, until it frays into bristles. These bristles release natural fragrant oil, which is then evenly applied to the meat as it barbecues.

The Kadazan people are also renowned for their lihing, a traditional sweet rice wine that plays an important role in their cultural and ceremonial life. It is brewed using glutinous rice and natural yeast called sasad, which initiates fermentation over several weeks. The resulting beverage is mildly alcoholic, golden in colour and has a distinctively sweet, aromatic flavour. Lihing symbolises hospitality, prosperity and spiritual connection with the ancestors and is one of several varieties of indigenous rice wine found in Sabah, but lihing is particularly associated with the Kadazan community of Penampang and surrounding areas. Montoku'<nowiki/> is the only distilled liquor produced by members of the Kadazan-Dusun community. This beverage is made from the rice wine tapai through the process of distillation, and it is more potent than lihing. The drink is traditionally brewed using time-honoured methods passed down through generations. While it was once widely made in rural households, montoku'<nowiki/> has become increasingly rare in modern times due to stricter alcohol regulations, declining interest in traditional brewing and the growing preference for commercially available European beverages among younger generations, such as red wine and beer. Nonetheless, montoku continues to be served on ceremonial occasions as a symbol of heritage and communal identity.

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| image1 = Donggongon Sabah Detail StMichaelChurch-09.jpg

| alt1 = St Michael's Church, Penampang District

| image2 = Papar CatholicChurch St-Joseph.jpg

| alt2 = St Joseph Catholic Church, Papar District

| image3 = Papar Sabah ChurchOfAscension-01.jpg

| alt3 = Church of Ascension, Papar District

| image4 = Beaufort Sabah GerejaBasel-01.jpg

| alt4 = Basel Christian Church of Malaysia, a Lutheran church of Beaufort District

| caption1 = St. Michael's Church, a Catholic church of Penampang District

| caption2 = St. Joseph the Worker, a Catholic church of Papar District

| caption3 = Anglican Church of Ascension, an Anglican Church of Papar District

| caption4 = Basel Christian Church of Malaysia, a Lutheran Church of Beaufort District

The majority of the Kadazan are Christians of Catholic adherents, with some Protestants mainly from the Anglican and Lutheran section. Islam is also practised by a minority, especially those who have intermarried with people from among Muslim-majority ethnic groups such as Bruneian Malay, Bajau, Bisaya and Kedayan. Prior to their conversion to Abrahamic religions, the dominant belief system among the Kadazan was Momolianism, which gave rise to many local customs, with some scholars equating it to animism. It was the predominant belief system prior to the arrival of Christian missionaries during the British North Borneo administration in the 1880s, especially the Mill Hill Missionaries. The Protestant influence is due to later British influence in the 20th century. The animistic Kadazan belief system centres around a single omnipotent deity known as Kinoingan. Rice cultivation is the centre of Kadazan life, and thus various rituals and festivals are celebrated and revolve around paddy cultivation. The annual harvest festival of Kaamatan is essentially a thanksgiving ceremony and the most recognisable festival attributed to both the Kadazan and the Dusun, a tradition rooted in a harvesting ritual called magavau. For each harvest, a tribal priestess, or a bobohizan, performs two different rituals; one before and one after.

thumb|[[Mount Kinabalu, the highest summit on the island of Borneo, is a spiritually charged sacred mountain that is known among the Dusunic population of Sabah as the resting place for the dead.]]

The majority of both the Kadazan and the Dusun believe that the spirits of their ancestors dwell at the summit of Mount Kinabalu. The Kadazan-Dusun call this mountain Kinabalu, which is derived from two words, aki, which carries the meaning of "ancestor", and nabalu or nabahu, which means "coffin". Thus, Kinabalu means "abode of the dead". A bobohizan does a ritual every year to appease the guiding spirit of the mountain, and the purpose of conducting such a ritual is to placate the spirit of Mount Kinabalu as well as the ancestral spirits. The ritual is understood to be a means of seeking the spirit's sanction and soliciting their protection during a climb. The Kadazan community, as a ritual isolate, is in constant interaction with the spirit world, which involves a number of sacrificial rituals to create a ritual state between the spirit world and themselves. A chosen apprentice is believed to be chosen by an unseen nature spirit, or a divato, to become a bobohizan. The divato is also a protective guardian spirit unique to each bobohizan, believed to guide and safeguard them through both the spiritual and physical realms. The calling typically reveals itself through vivid recurring dreams, spiritual disturbances, unexplained illness or any combination of them. These signs are interpreted as evidence of a spiritual summons.

The chosen individual may be approached by one or more divato, each guiding her in specific types of rituals or spiritual duties. These spirits are often associated with elements of nature, such as rivers, forests or mountains, and they may serve as both protectors and sources of ritual power. Bobohizan are sometimes regarded as having different ranks or degrees of knowledge, depending on their level of mastery and the types of spirits they work with. Those with deeper knowledge or broader ritual authority may preside over more complex ceremonies, or they may train others. An apprentice becomes a full bobohizan only after gaining the approval of her mentor and the recognition of the community. There is no formal ordination ceremony, her role is affirmed once she begins performing rituals independently and is accepted by the people as a legitimate spiritual authority. While lineage is not a requirement, some bobohizan may descend from an earlier bobohizan.

The bobohizan is usually an unmarried or widowed woman, as this allows her to focus entirely on spiritual service. They are expected to uphold personal discipline and moral conduct. Though respected, many live modestly, relying on voluntary offerings and community support rather than formal payment. When asking for help from a bobohizan to cure someone's prolonged or severe illness, she is usually called upon. The bobohizan should be informed of the relevant information by the sick person, this gives her a good background in locating the cause of the sickness. The bobohizan may also do preliminary consultations with a good-spirited "consultant", or a susukuon. or being in a state of trance to engage in dialogue with the evil spirit, acting as an oracle for communication in attempt to know its intention. The rundukon stage is the longest ritual stage performed by a bobohizan, lasting almost 24 hours. Additionally, she can also read an incantation to "cleanse the debris" that has been induced into a person's body by an evil spirit, cure a person of the effects of black magic and liberate a sick person from disturbances caused by the dead. After treatment by a bobohizan, a patient must remain indoors for one to three days.

The invocation of the paddy spirit

In preparation for the magavau ceremony, the priestess carefully selects stalks of paddy and ties them together just before the harvesting period starts. These stalks are left in the field and not to be cut or tampered with until the harvesting is completed. The selected stalks of paddy symbolise the spirit of paddy. As soon as the harvest is over, these stalks are cut by the priestess and taken into the house of the owner of the field, thus entering the spirit into the house. A ritual called magavau then takes place when the paddy is winnowed and stored away in a tangkob, or a large traditional rice storage.

The ritual of magavau

thumb|right|Bobohizan staging the magavau ritual

The magavau ritual is the sacred Kadazan thanksgiving ritual that serves as an appeasement to Bambazon, the rice spirit believed to guard the people's harvest and ensure their spiritual harmony. To some people, the magavau ritual is a form of ancestral reverence. This interpretation is sometimes supported by references to Bambazon, regarded as the manifestation of Huminodun, the only daughter of Kinoingan (not to be confused with the biblical Kinoingan) in the Kadazan-Dusun origin narrative. In this view, the reverence associated with Bambazon may be interpreted as having ancestral elements, rather than being understood solely as animistic practice.

The magavau begins just after sunset, when the priestess and her attendants sit on the floor in the living room and start chanting an ancient mantra, or an inait, to Bambazon which continues further into the night. Then, the priestess and her attendants stand up and slowly circle around the living room while chanting. After a while, they start to sing songs of praise to Bambazon. At this stage, the men join the circle, singing together with the priestess and her attendants. As they sing, they stamp their feet on the floor rhythmically and, at regular intervals, utter the awe-inspiring pangkis, which is the triumphant cry of the Kadazan. In 2025, a proposal to expand the teaching of the Kadazan-Dusun language subjects in schools to include four other ethnic languages—the Tatana Dusun language of Kuala Penyu, Kadazan of Penampang, Timugon Murut of Tenom, and Lotud Dusun of Tuaran—was submitted to the federal government. In early 2026, Kadazan-English-Malay online dictionaries were published. The Kadazan, Dusun and Rungus languages also share some similarities with the languages of the Philippines, such as Tagalog.

The use of the Kadazan language has declined due to language shift enforced through government policies that emphasised Malay and English. English was introduced by pre-World War II missionaries during the British colonial rule, while Malay was promoted by the federal government. The government of Sabah initiated several policies to prevent the continuous decline, which also affects other indigenous languages of Sabah. This included a policy of using Kadazan and other indigenous languages in public schools, and efforts have been made to make the language an official language in Sabah. In a 2005 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) report, the Kadazan-Dusun language was classified as an endangered language, since it was spoken by a mere 300,000 people. The term used for this is bumiputera (from Sanskrit "bhumiputra"), a Malay word which translates to "son of the land". Presently, the Kadazan are associated with the Dusun and the Rungus under the umbrella term Kadazan-Dusun. This classification arose as a result of political developments, specifically when a resolution was passed at the 5th Kadazan Cultural Association (KCA) Delegates' Conference, which was later renamed to Kadazan-Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA) Delegates' Conference, held on 4 and 5 November 1989. It was decided as the best alternative approach to resolve the "Kadazan or Dusun" identity crisis that had crippled and impeded the growth and development of the Kadazan-Dusun community socio-culturally, economically and politically—ever since "Kadazan versus Dusun" sentiments were politicised in the early 1960s.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Collection of useful phrases in Coastal Kadazan, a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken in Sabah of Borneo