Kabuki

thumb|The July 1858 production of at the [[Ichimura-za theater theatre in Edo. Triptych woodblock print by Utagawa Toyokuni III.|383x383px]]

alt=|thumb|Onoe Kikugorō VI as Umeō-maru in |279x279px

is a classical form of Japanese theatre, mixing dramatic performance with traditional dance. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily stylised performances, its glamorous, highly decorated costumes, and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers.

Kabuki is thought to have originated in the early Edo period, when the art's founder, Izumo no Okuni, formed a female dance troupe that performed dances and light sketches in Kyoto. The art form later developed into its present all-male theatrical form after women were banned from performing in kabuki theatre in 1629. Kabuki developed throughout the late 17th century and reached its zenith in the mid-18th century.

In 2005, kabuki theatre was proclaimed by UNESCO as an intangible heritage possessing outstanding universal value. In 2008, it was inscribed in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Etymology

The individual kanji that make up the word kabuki can be read as , , and . Kabuki is therefore sometimes translated as 'the art of singing and dancing'. These are, however, characters which do not reflect actual etymology. The kanji of 'skill' generally refers to a performer in kabuki theatre.

Since the word kabuki is believed to derive from the verb , meaning 'to lean' or 'to be out of the ordinary', the word kabuki can also be interpreted as 'avant-garde' or 'bizarre' theatre. The expression referred originally to those who were bizarrely dressed. It is often translated into English as 'strange things' or 'the crazy ones', and referred to the style of dress worn by gangs of samurai. Another explanation attributes the word kabuki to a verb that was used to describe young samurai patrons, meaning "being weird" or "offbeat."

History

1603–1629: Kabuki

thumb|The earliest portrait of [[Izumo no Okuni, the founder of kabuki (1600s)]]

The history of kabuki began in 1603 during the Edo period when former shrine maiden Izumo no Okuni, possibly a of Izumo-taisha, began performing with a troupe of young female dancers a new, simple style of dance drama in pantomime, on a makeshift stage in the dry bed of the Kamo River in Kyoto.

In the earliest forms of kabuki, female performers played both men and women in comic playlets about ordinary life. It did not take long for the style to become popular, and Okuni was asked to perform before the Imperial Court. In the wake of such success, rival troupes quickly formed, and kabuki was born as ensemble dance and drama performed by women.

Much of the appeal of kabuki in this era was due to the ribald, suggestive themes featured by many troupes; this appeal was further augmented by the fact that many performers were also involved in prostitution. the registered red-light district in Edo. The widespread appeal of kabuki often meant that a diverse crowd of different social classes gathered to watch performances, a unique occurrence that happened nowhere else in the city of Edo. Kabuki theatres became well known as a place to both see and be seen in terms of fashion and style, as the audience—commonly comprising a number of socially low but economically wealthy merchants—typically used a performance as a way to feature the fashion trends.

As an art-form, kabuki also provided inventive new forms of entertainment, featuring new musical styles played on the , clothes and fashion often dramatic in appearance, famous actors and stories often intended to mirror current events. Performances typically lasted from morning until sunset, with surrounding teahouses providing meals, refreshments and place to socialise. The area surrounding kabuki theatres also featured a number of shops selling kabuki souvenirs.

After performances, women performers would offer sexual services for those who could afford it. Since fights would usually erupt among the young samurai patrons, shogunal authorities, who wanted to maintain order, banned women from performing on stage. Following this ban, Okuni replaced the women with boys in Kabuki performances. During the early seventeenth century, within a culture where pederasty was pervasive among samurai, her decision didn't significantly harm the theater's popularity. In fact, it may have even benefited Kabuki, as it caught the attention of the third shogun, Iemitsu, known for his interest in pederasty. He even arranged special performances. However, after Iemitsu's death in 1651 and with samurai now fighting for the attention of boys rather than girls, the shogunate imposed further restrictions, allowing only males over 15 to perform on stage. Adult male actors, however, continued to play both female and male characters, and kabuki retained its popularity, remaining a key element of the Edo period urban life-style.

Although kabuki was performed widely across Japan, the Nakamura-za, Ichimura-za and Kawarazaki-za theatres became the most widely known and popular kabuki theatres, where some of the most successful kabuki performances were and still are held.

The focus of kabuki performances also increasingly began to emphasise drama alongside dance. However, the ribald nature of kabuki performances continued, with male actors also engaging in sex work for both female and male customers. Audiences frequently became rowdy, and brawls occasionally broke out, sometimes over the favors of a particularly popular or handsome actor, leading the shogunate to ban first and then roles for a short period of time; both bans were rescinded by 1652.

1673–1841: Genroku period kabuki

thumb|upright=0.8|left|Oniji Ōtani III (Nakazō Nakamura II) as Edobee in the May 1794 production of

thumb|upright=0.8|Kabuki actors Bando Zenji and Sawamura Yodogoro; 1794, fifth month by [[Sharaku]]

During the Genroku period, kabuki thrived, with the structure of kabuki plays formalising into the structure they are performed in today, alongside many other elements which eventually came to be recognised as a key aspect of kabuki tradition, such as conventional character tropes. Kabuki theater and , an elaborate form of puppet theater later known as , became closely associated with each other, mutually influencing the other's further development.

The famous playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, one of the first professional kabuki playwrights, produced several influential works during this time, though the piece usually acknowledged as his most significant, (The Love Suicides at ), was originally written for . Like many plays, it was adapted for kabuki, eventually becoming popular enough to reportedly inspire a number of real-life "copycat" suicides, and leading to a government ban on (plays about love suicides) in 1723.

Also during the Genroku period was the development of the style of posing, credited to kabuki actor Ichikawa Danjūrō I, alongside the development of the mask-like makeup worn by kabuki actors in some plays.

In the mid-18th century, kabuki fell out of favor for a time, with taking its place as the premier form of stage entertainment among the lower social classes. That occurred partly because of the emergence of several skilled playwrights in that time. Little of note would occur in the further development of kabuki until the end of the century, when it began to reemerge in popularity.

1842–1868: kabuki

thumb|Kabuki Scene (Diptych) by [[Utagawa Yoshitaki|Yoshitaki]]

In the 1840s, repeated periods of drought led to a series of fires affecting Edo, with kabuki theatres—traditionally made of wood—frequently burning down, forcing many to relocate. When the area that housed the Nakamura-za was completely destroyed in 1841, the refused to allow the theatre to be rebuilt, saying that it was against fire code. Actors, stagehands, and others associated with the performances were also forced to move as a result of the death of their livelihood; despite the move of everyone involved in kabuki performance, and many in the surrounding areas, to the new location of the theatres, the inconvenience of the distance led to a reduction in attendance.

After World War II, the occupying forces briefly banned kabuki, which had formed a strong base of support for Japan's war efforts since 1931. This ban was in conjunction with broader restrictions on media and art forms that the American military occupation instituted after WWII. However, by 1947 the ban on kabuki was rescinded, but censorship rules lingered.

Post-war to modern day kabuki

The ensuing period of occupation following World War II posited a difficult time for kabuki; besides the war's physical impact and devastation upon the country, some schools of thought chose to reject both the styles and artforms of pre-war Japan, kabuki amongst them. Director Tetsuji Takechi's popular and innovative productions of kabuki classics at this time are credited with sparking new interest in kabuki in the Kansai region. Of the many popular young stars who performed with the Takechi Kabuki, Nakamura Ganjiro III (b. 1931) was the leading figure, first known as Nakamura Senjaku before taking his current name. It was this period of kabuki in Osaka that became known as the "Age of Senjaku" in his honor. Well-known actor Bandō Tamasaburō V has appeared in several non-kabuki plays and movies, often in the role of a woman.

Kabuki also appears in works of Japanese popular culture such as anime. In addition to the handful of major theatres in Tokyo and Kyoto, there are many smaller theatres in Osaka and throughout the countryside. The troupe, based in Ōshika, Nagano Prefecture, is one example.

Some local kabuki troupes today use female actors in roles. The Ichikawa Shōjo Kabuki Gekidan, an all-female troupe, debuted in 1953 to significant acclaim, though the majority of kabuki troupes have remained entirely-male.

The introduction of earphone guides in 1975, including an English version in 1982, Kabuki troupes regularly tour Asia, Europe and America, and there have been several kabuki-themed productions of Western plays such as those of Shakespeare. Western playwrights and novelists have also experimented with kabuki themes, an example of which is Gerald Vizenor's (2004). Writer Yukio Mishima pioneered and popularised the use of kabuki in modern settings and revived other traditional arts, such as Noh, adapting them to modern contexts. There have even been kabuki troupes established in countries outside Japan. For instance, in Australia, the Za Kabuki troupe at the Australian National University has performed a kabuki drama each year since 1976, the longest regular kabuki performance outside Japan.

In November 2002, a statue was erected in honor of kabuki's founder, Izumo no Okuni and to commemorate 400 years of kabuki's existence. Diagonally across from the Minami-za, the last remaining kabuki theater in Kyoto,

Super Kabuki

While still maintaining most of the historical practices of kabuki, aimed to broaden its appeal by creating a new genre of kabuki productions called . With as the first Super Kabuki production to premiere in 1986, remakes of traditional plays and new contemporary creations have been brought to local theaters throughout the country, including anime-based productions such as Naruto or One Piece starting from 2014.

Super Kabuki has sparked controversy within the Japanese population regarding the extent of modification of the traditional art form. Some say that it has lost its 400-year history, while others consider the adaptations necessary for contemporary relevance. Regardless, since incorporating more advanced technology in the new stage sets, costumes, and lighting, Super Kabuki has regained interest from the young demographic.

In addition, Square Enix announced a Super Kabuki adaptation of Final Fantasy X collaborating with Tokyo Broadcasting System in 2022. Entitled Kinoshita Group presents New Kabuki Final Fantasy X and part of celebrations of the Final Fantasy franchise's 35th anniversary, it is scheduled to be performed at the IHI Stage Around Tokyo from March 4 to April 12, 2023.

Elements

Stage design

thumb|left|upright=1.3| ("A Scene from A Play") by Masanobu Okumura (1686–1764), depicting Edo Ichimura-za theatre in the early 1740s

The kabuki stage features a projection called a , a walkway which extends into the audience and via which dramatic entrances and exits are made. Okuni also performed on a stage with her entourage. The stage is used not only as a walkway or path to get to and from the main stage, but important scenes are also played on the stage.

Kabuki stages and theaters have steadily become more technologically sophisticated, and innovations including revolving stages and trap doors were introduced during the 18th century. A driving force has been the desire to manifest one frequent theme of kabuki theater, that of the sudden, dramatic revelation or transformation. A number of stage tricks, including actors' rapid appearance and disappearance, employ these innovations. The term , often translated as "playing to the gallery", is sometimes used as a catch-all for these tricks. The , and several innovations including revolving stage, and have all contributed to kabuki. The creates depth and both and provide a vertical dimension.

(revolving stage) developed in the Kyōhō era (1716–1735). The trick was originally accomplished by the on-stage pushing of a round, wheeled platform. Later a circular platform was embedded in the stage with wheels beneath it facilitating movement. The ("darkened revolve") technique involves lowering the stage lights during this transition. More commonly the lights are left on for ("lighted revolve"), sometimes simultaneously performing the transitioning scenes for dramatic effect. This stage was first built in Japan in the early 18th century.

refers to the stage "traps" that have been commonly employed in kabuki since the middle of the 18th century. These traps raise and lower actors or sets to the stage. or refers to traps moving upward and or to traps descending. This technique is often used to lift an entire scene at once.

thumb|Chūnori: Kunitarō Sawamura II as Kitsune Tadanobu (left) flying over the stage, in the autumn of 1847 production of

thumb|Traditional striped black-red-green curtain, at the Misono-za in Nagoya

(riding in mid-air) is a technique, which appeared toward the middle of the 19th century, by which an actor's costume is attached to wires and he is made to "fly" over the stage or certain parts of the auditorium. This is similar to the wire trick in the stage musical Peter Pan, in which Peter launches himself into the air. It is still one of the most popular (visual tricks) in kabuki today; major kabuki theaters, such as the National Theatre, Kabuki-za and Minami-za, are all equipped with installations.

Scenery changes are sometimes made mid-scene, while the actors remain on stage and the curtain stays open. This is sometimes accomplished by using a , or "small wagon stage". This technique originated at the beginning of the 18th century, where scenery or actors move on or off stage on a wheeled platform. Also common are stagehands rushing onto the stage adding and removing props, backdrops and other scenery; these are always dressed entirely in black and are traditionally considered invisible. Stagehands also assist in a variety of quick costume changes known as ("quick change technique").

When a character's true nature is suddenly revealed, the devices of and are often used. This involves layering one costume over another and having a stagehand pull the outer one off in front of the audience.

The curtain that shields the stage before the performance and during the breaks is in the traditional colours of black, red and green, in various order, or white instead of green, vertical stripes. The curtain consists of one piece and is pulled back to one side by a staff member by hand.

An additional outer curtain called was not introduced until the Meiji era following the introduction of western influence. These are more ornate in their appearance and are woven. They depict the season in which the performance is taking place, often designed by renowned artists.

Appearances

Since feudal laws in 17th century Japan prohibited replicating the looks of samurai or nobility and the use of luxurious fabrics, the kabuki costumes were groundbreaking new designs to the general public, even setting trends that still exist today.

Although the earliest kabuki costumes have not been preserved, separate and kabuki costumes today are made based on written records called and in collaboration with those whose families have been in the kabuki industry for generations. The kimono the actors wear for their costumes are typically made with vibrant colours and multiple layers. Both and wear - pleated trousers – in some plays, and both use padding underneath their costumes to create the correct body shape for the outfit.

Kabuki makeup provides an element of style easily recognizable even by those unfamiliar with the art form. Rice powder is used to create the white base for the characteristic stage makeup, and enhances or exaggerates facial lines to produce dramatic animal or supernatural masks. The colour of the is an expression of the character's nature: red lines are used to indicate passion, heroism, righteousness, and other positive traits; blue or black, villainy, jealousy, and other negative traits; green, the supernatural; and purple, nobility.

, or history plays, are set within the context of major events in Japanese history. Strict censorship laws during the Edo period prohibited the representation of contemporary events and particularly prohibited criticising the shogunate or casting it in a bad light, although enforcement varied greatly over the years. Many shows were set in the context of the Genpei War of the 1180s, the Nanboku-chō Wars of the 1330s, or other historical events. Frustrating the censors, many shows used these historical settings as metaphors for contemporary events. , one of the most famous plays in the kabuki repertoire, serves as an excellent example; it is ostensibly set in the 1330s, though it actually depicts the contemporary (18th century) affair of the revenge of the 47 rōnin.

thumb|upright=1.85|left|The March 1849 production of at Edo Nakamura-za theater

Unlike , which generally focused upon the samurai class, focused primarily upon commoners, namely townspeople and peasants. Often referred to as "domestic plays" in English, generally related to themes of family drama and romance. Some of the most famous are the love suicide plays, adapted from works by the playwright Chikamatsu; these center on romantic couples who cannot be together in life due to various circumstances and who therefore decide to be together in death instead. Many if not most contain significant elements of this theme of societal pressures and limitations.

pieces place their emphasis on dance, which may be performed with or without dialogue, where dance can be used to convey emotion, character and plot. Quick costume change techniques may sometimes be employed in such pieces. Notable examples include and .

Dance

Dance is an important element of kabuki, and many plays include extended dance pieces known as shosagoto.

In shosagoto, sleeve movement is one of the most distinctive features of the dance. These performances generally minimize the exposure of the dancer’s body and place emphasis on the costume, with the long, voluminous sleeves used to communicate a wide range of emotions. Sleeve length may vary according to character type, and the manipulation of the hanging sleeves can suggest different feelings, such as wiping tears.

Stamping also plays a major role in shosagoto and is typically used as a rhythmic device within the performance. In some cases, rhythmic stamping may also be used to express particular emotions, such as anger.

These movements may also be classified within the broader stylistic categories of odori and mai.

Odori is characterized by lively and rhythmic movement, as well as quick footwork that may include leaps and stamping. Because character portrayal is an important aspect of this style, gestures of the hands and head vary according to role type. Mai, which is based on techniques associated with Noh, consists of slow and restrained movements marked by deliberate turning, pivoting, and the use of suriashi, or sliding steps. It also employs a controlled stamping movement known as hyoshi.

Music

Kabuki music is broadly divided into utamono (song-based pieces) and katarimono (narrative pieces, also known as joruri). Song-based pieces include nagauta, a form performed with vocal accompaniment and the shamisen.

In the context of shosagoto, nagauta came to occupy a particularly important place. It was developed specifically to meet the requirements of shosagoto and later became a general-purpose musical form in kabuki theatre. Although the shamisen was the principal instrument used in these musical styles, nagauta also incorporated additional instruments.

Nagauta is often accompanied by narimono, the instruments of the hayashi ensemble, especially the shibyoshi (four rhythms), which consists of the kotsuzumi, otsuzumi, taiko, and fue. Together, these musical elements help shape the dramatic mood of a scene. In performances using nagauta and narimono, the music is played from a small room behind a bamboo screen called the kuromisu, located at shimote (stage left from the audience’s perspective). musicians may be seated in rows on stepped platforms behind the dancers.

----Important elements of kabuki include the , in which the actor holds a picturesque pose to establish his character.

thumb|The September 1824 production of at Kado-za theatre in Osaka|450px

While many plays were written solely for kabuki, many others were taken from plays, Noh plays, folklore, or other performing traditions such as the oral tradition of the Tale of the Heike. While plays tend to have serious, emotionally dramatic, and organised plots, plays written specifically for kabuki generally have looser, more humorous plots.

One crucial difference between and kabuki is a difference in storytelling focus; whereas focuses on the story and on the chanter who recites it, kabuki has a greater focus on the actors themselves. A play may sacrifice the details of sets, puppets, or action in favor of the chanter, while kabuki is known to sacrifice drama and even the plot to highlight an actor's talents. It was not uncommon in kabuki to insert or remove individual scenes from a day's schedule in order to cater to an individual actor—either scenes he was famed for, or that featured him, would be inserted into a program without regard to plot continuity.

Kabuki traditions in Edo and the Kyoto-Osaka region (Kamigata) differed; throughout the Edo period, Edo kabuki was defined by its extravagance, both in the appearance of its actors, their costumes, stage tricks and bold poses. In contrast, Kamigata kabuki focused on natural and realistic styles of acting. Only towards the end of the Edo period did the two styles begin to merge to any significant degree. Before this time, actors from different regions often failed to adjust their acting styles when performing elsewhere, leading to unsuccessful performance tours outside of their usual region of performance.

Famous plays

While there are many famous plays known today, many of the most famous were written in the mid-Edo period, and were originally written for theatre.

(Treasury of Loyal Retainers) is the famous story of the forty-seven , led by Oishi Kuranosuke, who exact revenge on their enemy before committing suicide upon the death of their master, Lord Takuminokami of the Asano clan. This story is one of the most popular traditional tales in Japan, and is based on a famous episode in 18th century Japanese history.
( and the Thousand Cherry Trees) follows Minamoto no Yoshitsune as he flees from agents of his brother Yoritomo. Three Taira clan generals supposedly killed in the Genpei War figure prominently, as their deaths ensure a complete end to the war and the arrival of peace, as does a named Genkurō.
( and the Secrets of Calligraphy) is based on the life of famed scholar Sugawara no Michizane (845–903), who is exiled from Kyoto, and upon his death causes a number of calamities in the capital. He is then deified, as ("divine spirit") of scholarship, and worshipped in order to propitiate his angry spirit. or Eight Dogs, was acted out in various episodes on the kabuki stage.

One important way the laboring class was able to enjoy kabuki performances outside of the stage was through home-brewed shows called . Also referred to as "amateur kabuki", these performances took place at the local level across Japan, but were most commonly held in the Gifu and Aichi prefectures. In Gifu Prefecture specifically, kabuki was a prominent feature of the annual autumn festival, with children's reenactments of kabuki performances taking place at Murakuni shrine for over 300 years.

Closer to the cultural epicenter of kabuki in Edo (later Tokyo), commoners had other methods to enjoy performances without attending the shows. was a type of performance shorter in length and more affordable to the common class than kabuki. performances were often based on plots used in kabuki, and the two styles shared common themes. was another popular medium for kabuki consumption among commoners and elites alike. During the course of its publication, this magazine allowed those unable to attend performances to enjoy the liveliness of kabuki culture.

Notes

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References

Ronald Cavaye (1993). Kabuki: A Pocket Guide. USA and Japan: Charles E. Tuttle,
Ronald Cavaye, Paul Griffith and Akihiko Senda (2004). A Guide to the Japanese Stage. Japan: Kodansha International.
Senelick, L. (2000). The Changing Room: Sex, Drag, and Theatre. London: Routledge.
Facts JPN-kabuki. 25 November 2007 <facts JPN-kabuki>.
Japanese Culture. 25 November 2007 <Japanese Culture - Entertainment - Kabuki Theater>.
Kabuki. 25 November 2007 <Kabuki>
Kabuki. Ed. Shoriya Aragoro. 9 September 1999. 25 November 2007 <KABUKI>

External links

Kabuki Web—Shochiku Official Kabuki Website in English
Earphone Guide —The English language Earphone Guide
Kabuki 21—All about Japan's traditional Theatre Art of Kabuki: The art, the plays, the great stars of today, the legends of the past, the theaters, the history, the glossary, the traditions, the heroes and the derivatives.
National Diet Library: photograph of Kabuki-za in Kyobashi-ku, Kobiki-cho, Tokyo (1900); Kakuki-za (1901); Kakuki-za (1909); Kabuki-za (1911); Kabuki-za (1912); Kakuki-za (1915)
Kabuki prints by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861)
Japan Mint: Kabuki Coin Set
Audio recording of the kabuki play Narukami by Ichikawa Danjūrō I at LostPlays.com
1969 'Camera Three' program on Kabuki, (audio only; with Faubion Bowers et al.)
Collection: "Kabuki Images" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art
"Kabuki Performance and Expression in Japanese Prints" exhibition at the Museum of Art and Archaeology at the University of Missouri