The Kabo Reform () describes a series of sweeping reforms suggested to the government of Korea, beginning in 1894 and ending in 1896 during the reign of Gojong of Korea in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Historians debate the degree of Japanese influence in this program, as well as its effect in encouraging modernization.

The term Kabo () comes from the name of the year 1894 in the traditional sexagenary cycle.

Background

The disarray and blatant corruption in the Korean government, particularly in the three main areas of revenues – land tax, military service, and the state granary system – weighed heavily on the Korean peasantry.

Of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries (Hyangi) who could purchase an appointment as administrators and cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of officialdom. Yangban families, formerly well-respected for their status as a noble class, were increasingly seen as little more than commoners who were unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their communities.

Faced with increasing corruption in the government, brigandage of the disenfranchised (such as the mounted fire brigands, or Hwajok, and the boat-borne water brigands or Sujok) as well as abuse by the military, many poor villagers sought to pool their resources such as land, tools, and production skills in order to survive.

Despite the government abolishing slavery and burning the records in 1801, increasing numbers of peasants and farmers become involved in "mutual assistance associations". Institutions such as the Catholic and Protestant missions, with the egalitarian nature of their teachings garnered followings among the Yangban, though commonly in the more urban areas.

Arguably of greater influence were the religious teachings of Choe Je-u, (최제우, 崔濟愚, 1824–1864) called Donghak or "Eastern Learning" which became especially popular in rural areas. Themes of exclusionism (of foreign influences), nationalism, salvation, and social consciousness were promoted to allow illiterate farmers to understand the concepts and accept them more readily.

Choi, like many Koreans, was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing during the Second Opium War. He believed that the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among the peasant guerrillas, and Donghak spread all across Korea. Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following the Chinju Uprising led by Yu Kye-cheun, Choi was charged with "misleading the people and sowing discord in society". Choi was beheaded in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains and leaving the Korean populace to continue to suffer.

King Gojong (r. 1864–1907), enthroned at the age of twelve, succeeded King Cheolchong (r. 1849 – 1863). King Gojong's father, Heungseon Daewongun (Yi Ha-Ung; 1820–1898), ruled as the de facto regent and inaugurated far-ranging reform to strengthen the central administration. Among his targeted reforms was addressing the inherited rule by a few elite ruling families by the adoption of a merit system for official appointments.

In addition, Seowon (private academies), which threatened to develop a parallel system to the corrupt government and enjoyed special privileges and large land-holdings, were repressed through taxes despite bitter opposition from Confucian scholars. The decision to rebuild palace buildings and finance it through additional levies on the population caused Heungseon Daewongun's attempted reforms to antagonize the three largest constituencies supporting the government: the ruling elite, the Confucian scholars, and the general population. Heungseon Daewongun was impeached in 1873 and forced into retirement by the supporters of Empress Myeongseong.

On 27 February 1876, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, also known in Japan as the Japanese-Korean Treaty of Amity (, ) was signed. It was designed to open up Korea to Japanese trade, and the rights granted to Japan under the treaty were similar to those granted to European powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854. However, the treaty ended Korea's status as a protectorate of China, forced open three Korean ports to Japanese trade, granted extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens, and was an unequal treaty signed under duress of the Unyo Incident of 1875 (gunboat diplomacy).

Daewongun remained opposed to any concessions to Japan or the Western Europeans, helped organize the mutiny of 1882 Imo Incident, an anti-Japanese outbreak against the Empress and her allies. Motivated by resentment of the preferential treatment given to newly trained troops, Daewongun's forces, or "old military", killed Japanese training cadre and attacked the Japanese legation. policemen, students and some Min clan members were also killed during the incident.

Daewongun was restored to power briefly, only to be forcibly taken to China by Chinese troops dispatched to Seoul to prevent further disorder.

The second reform measures were halted when Park Yung-hio, who had been at the center of the reform efforts, fled to Japan after being accused of conspiracy to treason by those who were against the reformations that were taking place.

Assassination of Queen Min, 1895

The Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Gorō, orchestrated a plot against 43-year-old Queen Min (later given the title Empress Myeongseong), and on 8 October 1895, she was assassinated by Japanese agents. According to a Russian eyewitness, Seredin-Sabatin (Середин-Cабатин), an employee of the Korean king, a group of Japanese agents entered Gyeongbokgung, killed Queen Min and desecrated her body in the north wing of the palace.

When he heard the news, Heungseon Daewongun returned to the royal palace the same day. A special reform body, Gunguk Gimucheo (, Deliberative Council), was created to establish rules. and the renewal of the military system.

  1. Korea is a sovereign country (i.e., completely independent from China's external interference).
  2. Hierarchical society (class system) is abolished. Social privileges of the Yangban classes are eliminated.
  3. Those with talent are to be allowed to study and appointed to government posts based on merit alone, regardless of social class.
  4. The army is to be established on the basis of conscription, regardless of background. A modern police force and military are established.
  5. All official documents are to be written in Hangul, and not hanja (Chinese characters).
  6. Leather working, acting, and so on are to no longer be regarded as degrading work, and the people who do them are no longer outcasts.
  7. A sound system of fiscal management and to use the government's fiscal resources to create wealth for the country is developed.
  8. Torture of suspects and witnesses was banned, guilt by association ended (punishment of family members of criminals).
  9. End of merchant monopolies.
  10. Ban of sale of slaves from 1886 confirmed, and all forms of legal slavery ended.
  11. Marriage age raised to twenty for men and sixteen for women (outlawing child marriage).

Protests for democracy and the proclamation of Korean Empire, 1896–1898

After the Royal Refuge, some Korean activists established the Independence Club (독립협회, 獨立協會) in 1896. They claimed that Korea should negotiate with Western powers, particularly Russia, to counterbalance the growing influence of Japan and Russia. This club had contributed to the construction of Independence Gate, and they held regular meetings at the Jongno streets, demanding democratic reforms as Korea became a constitutional monarchy, and an end to Japanese and Russian influence in Korean affairs. In October 1897, King Gojong decided to return to his other palace, Deoksugung, and proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire. During this period, the Korean government conducted a westernization policy. It was not an enduring reform, however, and the Independence Club was dissolved on 25 December 1898 as Emperor Gojong officially announced a prohibition on unofficial congresses.

See also

  • Gapsin Coup
  • Gwangmu Reform
  • Timeline of the Gwangmu Reform
  • History of Korea
  • Korean independence movement

References

Bibliography

  • Kabo Reforms at Nate Britannica Korea
  • Kabo Reforms at Daum Britannica Korea
  • Kabo Reforms at Doosan Encyclopedia
  • The Academy of Korean Studies, Korea through the Ages Vol. 2, The Editor Publishing Co., Seoul, 2005.
  • Yu Kilchun, “Levels of enlightenment”, pp. 248–253 in Yôngho Ch'oe and Peter H. Lee eds., Sources of Korean Tradition, Vol. 2: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries
  • Young I. Lew, “Korean-Japanese Politics behind the Kabo-Ulmi Reform Movement, 1894 to 1896”, Journal of Korean Studies, Vol. 3 (1981)

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