José Joaquín de Herrera

José Joaquín Antonio Florencio de Herrera y Ricardos (February 23, 1792 – February 10, 1854) was a Mexican statesman who served as president of Mexico three times (1844, 1844–1845 and 1848–1851), and as a general in the Mexican Army during the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848.

He fought in the Mexican War of Independence initially remaining loyal to Spain, but he switched sides towards the end of the war to join the Plan of Iguala. During the First Mexican Republic, he served as Minister of War twice.

Under the Centralist Republic of Mexico, he reached the position of president of the council of state, which led to him becoming president twice. When Santa Anna took power in 1844, he installed Valentin Canalizo as his puppet ruler, but as Canalizo was not present at the capital at that time, Herrera was made interim president while Canalizo arrived and only remained in power for ten days. After Santa Anna and Canalizo were overthrown in 1845, Herrera, president of the council of state was once again chosen to assume the presidency. Herrera would find himself overthrown at the end of the year amidst accusations that he was committing treason by attempting to recognize the independence of Texas, though his intentions were to create a buffer state as a guard against further American encroachment.

After the end of the Mexican-American War, he was elected president again in 1848, and pursued many measures of economic and political reform. The end of his administration in 1852 marked the first peaceful transfer of power in Mexico since 1824.

Early life

Jose Joaquin Herrera was born in Jalapa in 1792 and joined the regiment of La Corona in 1809, the year before the Mexican War of Independence began. He served on the Spanish Loyalist side of the war, and reached the rank of Captain of Fusiliers in 1814. He was present at the Battle of Aculco and the Battle of Calderón Bridge for which he was awarded a medal of honor. He saw action at the Battle of El Maguey and Battle of Zitácuaro and defended the city of Toluca towards the end of the year 1811. In 1813 he fought at Acatlan and at the pass of Mescala and in Chichihualco. He formed part of the expedition sent to retake Acapulco. He formed part of the expedition to Ajuchitlán where he fought at Coyuca, Tepantitlan and Tlacotepec, routing the forces of the insurgent chief Victor Manuel.

In June 1816, he defeated at San Pedro to troops of Marshal Avila, seizing all of his artillery, munitions, and armaments.

He was placed in charge of the district of Tecpan and later the government of Acapulco which was then being administered by the military. He remained at this post until November 1817. He was then sent to relieve the siege of Jaujilla and fought a battle at the river of Zacatula where the opposing armies had entrenched themselves on the opposite shore. He was named principal commandant of the Tierra Caliente until September, 1819. He was in command of forces during the retreat from Tupataro, after which he led his troops to relieve forces at Ajuchitlan. He was present when the Fort of San Gaspar was take in October 1819, after which he returned to his administrative post at Acapulco. The war had mostly died down at this point.

On December 6, Herrera published a manifesto appealing to all patriots to join him and assuring that Congress would be reestablished. His promise was fulfilled and congress was able to meet at the National Palace that same afternoon. After having reconvened the congress, Herrera tendered his resignation, but the congress voted for him to remain on December 10. The government then resolved to defeat Santa Anna's remaining forces.

Mexico City was declared to be under siege and Congress sold bonds to buy provisions. Trenches were dug in the streets and artillery positions on rooftops. As more regions of the nation adhered to Herrera, the government became more confident of their ultimate victory and even offered Santa Anna the opportunity to turn himself in peacefully. The offer was rejected on the pretext that Herrera's government was illegitimate. Santa Anna bypassed the capital and headed towards Puebla which he began to siege. General Nicolás Bravo was sent after him.

To celebrate end of the conflict, Congress held a function at the Chapel of the Virgin of Guadalupe, assisted by Herrera, the ministers of both chambers, and of the supreme court, and a holiday was decreed to commemorate the day, at which Mass was to be celebrated at all Mexican churches. A sword was awarded to General Inclan, and medals were granted to those who had defended Puebla. Herrera was congratulated by the governors of Zacatecas and Jalisco, and by Generals Alvarez and Arista, by municipal governments, and departmental assemblies.

One of the major issues facing the Herrera administration was that of constitutional reform. The country had faced decades of political and military conflict over whether the constitution should be federal or centralist, and Santa Anna had used the centralist Bases Organicas to establish a dictatorship. The government began to sound the opinions of the departmental assemblies to get feedback about which direction to proceed. It also began to seek a legal basis upon which to possibly annul the constitution.

The threat of war now loomed between the two nations, and the Mexican congress resolved not to resume diplomatic relations without the condition that the United States would not annex Texas. The president was also authorized to raise the resources and conscripts necessary to defend the nation. The nation was inflamed by anti-American sentiments, fueled by the press.

On December 14, 1845, the troops at San Luis Potosí, mutinied led by Mariano Paredes. The revolution was seconded by several of the departmental assemblies and military revolt spread even to Mexico City. On December 30, unable to offer further resistance, President Herrera resigned. He was succeeded by Mariano Paredes. The Mexican-American War would begin four months later

Third Presidency

Herrera experienced a rehabilition through the course of the war and found himself the first president elected once again after peace was reestablished in 1848. On June 14, 1848, he passed a decree reforming the treasury department, reducing the budget for the civil service and the army, and presented a plan to congress for the consolidation of the national debt.

The Constitution of 1824 had been restored during the Mexican-American War, but further considerations on constitutional reform stalled in congress. The new state of Guerrero however was successfully formed on May 15, 1849, out of districts taken from the states of Mexico, Puebla, and Michoacán. It was named after the hero of independence and former president Vicente Guerrero.

The first measures to build a telegraph in Mexico were under taken by building a line between Mexico and Puebla in 1851.

Financial issues

On November 30, 1850, the national debt was consolidated into one fund with the interest rate set at 3 percent, that was to receive twenty percent of custom house revenues. A committee was set up to manage the debt and oversee the collection of duties. Forty million pesos of bonds were set to be issued.

The plan however failed due to a lack of financial data. The amount of national debt was underestimated and even taking into account the indemnity paid by the United States after the war, it was discovered that there were not enough funds to realistically pay off the debt under the new plan. There was outcry by debtors both foreign and domestic, and a consolidation of the debt was abandoned to make individual arrangements with debtors with no certainty that everyone would eventually be paid.

In November 1849, administrative expenses were limited to 500,000 pesos a month, with two thirds of that going to the War Department. This required a reduction of salaries for officials, leading to the limit to be widely ignored. The government had to use the U.S. war indemnity to continue paying off the deficit.

By 1850 the government deficit was 8.5 million pesos which by the following year had risen to 11.3 million pesos.

Seemingly facing the impossible, the Ministry of Finance was plagued by a series of resignations, and from January 1848 to January 1851, there were sixteen different finance ministers. The rest of Herrera's ministry's were relatively stable.

Regardless of the intractable issue of the deficit the economy seemed to be overall improving. Abundant harvests were reported, and the mines began to increase their yields. Construction on a railway and telegraph line was begun, and the first industrial exhibition in Mexico opened on November 1, 1849, in Mexico City. Another controversial measure was the prohibition of promotion from rank and file troops. The government preferred that officers come from the military schools and from the pool of officers now unemployed due to army reductions. Even the minister of war protested against this measure but it stood.

A pressing issue of national security was the strength of Indian raids on the northern frontier, and the Mexican government had already secured in the Treaty of Guadalupe, American aid in keeping these raids under control. The government attempted to establish military colonies along the frontier to settle and pacify the region. The project was hampered by lack of funds, but by 1851, despite not being as extensive as originally planned, reasonable progress on the colonies had nonetheless been made, and three successful settlements were home to over two thousand individuals.

An insurrection in the Sierra Gorda led to the governor requesting aid from the surrounding states. Two thousand men subsequently arrived and the leader Quiros was captured and executed in October 1849.

The Caste War was also ongoing in Yucatán. General Micheltorena arrived to take charge of federal efforts to keep the insurrection under control. The Maya leaders were advancing, and established a headquarters at Chan Santa Cruz. Micheltorena resigned after failing to keep the situation under control and was replaced in May 1851, by General Vega.

Foreign relations

Towards the end of his administration, Herrera began to negotiate a treaty with the United States to either construct a canal or a railroad across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The treaty was approved by the administration, but rejected by congress due to a clause that permitted the United States to send troops in order to protect the construction.

In response to the upheavals faced by the Papal States during the 1848 revolutions, the Mexican government offered Pope Pius IX asylum, which the pope responded to by considering the creation of a Mexican cardinal and granting an award to President Herrera.

Post presidency

The 1851 election was won by Mariano Arista, and Herrera was the first Mexican president to complete his term since the inaugural holder of the office, Guadalupe Victoria has passed power over to Vicente Guerrero in 1828.

After stepping down, Herrera was accompanied by President Arista to his home in Tacubaya. There he lived in declining health, and lived long enough to witness the return to power of Santa Anna in 1853, after having played such a pivotal role in overthrowing him in 1845. Herrera died in poverty on February 10, 1854. He was buried in the cemetery of San Fernando. At the funeral were present José María Lacunza, Luis G. Cuevas and other officers and officials.

References

Bibliography

External links

Brief biography at PBS