Prince Itō Hirobumi ( ; born ; 16 October 1841 – 26 October 1909) was a Japanese statesman who served as the first prime minister of Japan from 1885 to 1888. Itō held office again as prime minister three times between 1892 and 1901. He was also a member of the genrō, a group of senior statesmen who effectively dictated policy for the Empire of Japan during the Meiji era. A key figure in the making of modern Japan, Itō played a central role in the drafting of the 1889 Meiji Constitution as well as the establishment of the National Diet and Japanese cabinet system.
Born into a poor farming family in the Chōshū Domain, Itō Hirobumi and his father were adopted into a low-ranking samurai family. After the opening of Japan in 1854, he joined the nationalist sonnō jōi movement before being sent to England in 1863 to study at University College London. Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Itō was appointed a junior councilor for foreign affairs in the newly formed Empire of Japan. Later in 1870, he traveled to the United States to study Western currency, and subsequently helped establish Japan's modern banking and taxation systems. Itō then set off on another overseas trip with the Iwakura Mission to the U.S. and Europe. Upon his return to Japan in 1873, he became a full councilor and public works minister.
By the early 1880s, Itō emerged as the de facto leader of the Meiji oligarchy. In 1881, he was officially entrusted with overseeing the drafting of the Meiji Constitution. After traveling to Europe to study its nations' political systems, Itō settled on adopting a constitution emulating that of Prussia by reserving considerable power with the emperor while limiting political parties' involvement in government. In 1885, he replaced the Daijō-kan with a cabinet composed of ministry heads, and became Japan's first prime minister. After the Meiji Constitution was drafted in 1888, he established a supra-cabinet Privy Council led by himself to review it before its official promulgation in 1889. Even out of office as prime minister, Itō continued to exert significant influence on government policy as an imperial adviser, or genkun, and as President of the Privy Council. In 1900, he founded the Rikken Seiyūkai political party as party politics grew more prominent in the Diet.
On the world stage, Itō pursued an active foreign policy. He strengthened diplomatic ties with Western powers including Germany, the United States, and especially the United Kingdom. In Asia, he oversaw the First Sino-Japanese War and negotiated the surrender of China's ruling Qing dynasty on terms favorable to Japan, including the annexation of Taiwan and the release of Korea from the Chinese tributary system. After the Russo-Japanese War, the ensuing Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 made Itō the first Resident-General of Korea. Despite initially supporting a protectorate rather than outright annexation of Korea, pressure from the Imperial Japanese Army leadership and the failure of his gradualist approach contributed to his support for annexation. Itō resigned as Resident-General in June 1909 only to be assassinated four months later by Korean-independence activist and nationalist An Jung-geun in Harbin, Manchuria.
Early life and education
Origins and adoption
thumb|left|Itō's childhood home in [[Hagi, Yamaguchi|Hagi, Yamaguchi Prefecture]]
Itō Hirobumi was born Hayashi Risuke on 16 October 1841 (Tenpō 12, 2nd day of the 9th month) in Tsukari village, Suō Province (present-day Hikari, Yamaguchi Prefecture), within the Chōshū Domain. He was the son of Hayashi Jūzō, a farmer of humble origins. His father served a low-ranking samurai named Itō Naoemon in the castle town of Hagi. When Hirobumi was very young, his father was adopted into the Itō family along with his household, granting them samurai status, albeit at the lowest rank of chūgen (foot soldier). After the adoption, Risuke's name was changed to Itō Risuke, then Itō Shunsuke in 1858, and finally to Hirobumi around 1869. The name "Hirobumi" (博文), meaning "extensive learning", was reportedly suggested by Takasugi Shinsaku and derived from The Analects of Confucius.
Yoshida Shōin and early activism
thumb|left|Itō as a young [[samurai, 1863]]
In 1856, Itō was sent for guard duty in Sagami Province. There, in 1857, Kuruhara Ryōzō, a brother-in-law of Kido Takayoshi, encouraged his intellectual pursuits. Later that year, Itō returned to Chōshū and, with Kuruhara's introduction, enrolled in the Shōka Sonjuku, a private academy run by the influential scholar and activist Yoshida Shōin. The academy educated several figures who later became prominent in the Meiji Restoration, including Takasugi Shinsaku and Yamagata Aritomo.
Yoshida Shōin's execution in the Ansei Purge of 1859 profoundly impacted Itō, who, along with Kido Takayoshi and others, retrieved Yoshida's body for burial. Following this, Itō became involved in the radical sonnō jōi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) movement. In 1862, he participated in an unsuccessful plot to assassinate Nagai Uta, a Chōshū official. Later that year, he took part in the burning of the British legation in Edo. Subsequently, along with Yamao Yōzō, he assassinated the Japanese classics scholar Hanawa Jirō Tadatomi, acting on a false report.
Despite his early immersion in Shōin's ideology, Itō later distanced himself from its radicalism, viewing the anti-Western sentiment of the era as "entirely emotional" and lacking "thoughtful political calculations". He came to admire figures like Nagai Uta for their pragmatic "political strategy", signaling his own developing preference for statesmanship grounded in realism.
Study in Britain and return
thumb|The "[[Chōshū Five", 1863. From left: Inoue Kaoru, Endō Kinsuke, Nomura Yakichi, Yamao Yōzō, and Itō.]]
Itō was selected as one of the Chōshū Five to secretly travel to Britain in 1863 for study, an act that violated the Tokugawa shogunate's ban on overseas travel. The Chōshū Domain's leadership, including Sufu Masanosuke, saw this as important for acquiring "human tools" and understanding Western civilization to prepare Japan for future international engagement. The five students departed Japan on 27 June 1863, arriving in London on 4 November. They commenced their studies at University College London, lodging with Professor Alexander Williamson and immersing themselves in English language and Western customs.
Itō's initial period of study in Britain was cut short. After about six months, he and Inoue Kaoru decided to return to Japan upon learning from The Times about the bombardment of Shimonoseki by Western powers and the conflict between the Satsuma Domain and a British naval squadron. Their aim was to persuade the Chōshū leaders of the impracticality of expelling foreigners.
This first overseas experience, though brief, is often described as an important influence on his later outlook. He returned to Japan in July 1864, during a period of national crisis. His firsthand knowledge of the West and his newly acquired English skills made him an invaluable asset. Following Chōshū's defeat by the allied Western naval forces at Shimonoseki, Itō served as a negotiator in the peace talks. This experience launched his career as a skilled negotiator, a talent Yoshida Shōin had earlier recognized. His time in Britain broadened his perspective and influenced his later approach to foreign affairs and state-building and a commitment to "extensive learning" (the meaning of "Hirobumi"). Itō developed a functional command of English, later delivering speeches in the language during the Iwakura Mission and maintaining a habit of reading English publications. He frequently gave interviews to Western media without an interpreter and conducted correspondence in English throughout his career.
Early Meiji statesman
Rise in the Meiji government
thumb|Samurai of the [[Chōshū Domain|Chōshū and Satsuma Domains in 1869, with Itō on the far-left and Ōkubo Toshimichi on the far-right]]
After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Itō's understanding of Western affairs became a significant asset, which contributed to his advancement in the new government. In February 1868, he was assigned to a role in foreign affairs. Later that year, he was appointed the first governor of Hyōgo Prefecture, which included the recently opened port of Kobe. This position placed him at the forefront of Japan's diplomatic and international trade activities.
In February 1869, Itō submitted a significant policy paper, "Principles for National Policy" (Kokuze kōmoku), also known as the "Hyōgo Proposal". This comprehensive six-point plan advocated for:
- The establishment of a monarchy.
- The centralization of political and military power under imperial rule, which included supporting the return of feudal domains to the emperor (hanseki hōkan).
- Active engagement and interaction with foreign countries.
- The elimination of traditional class distinctions and the granting of greater freedom to the populace.
- The promotion of scientific learning and knowledge acquisition from around the world.
- International cooperation and the definitive end of anti-foreignism (jōi).
The proposal strongly emphasized the necessity "to let people throughout Japan learn the science behind the scientific achievements of the world, thereby spreading knowledge of the natural sciences". He called for cultivating a "civilized and enlightened" populace and proposed the establishment of universities in Tokyo and Kyoto.
He referred to the United States as an example of national consolidation where national prosperity was driven by the "united hearts and minds of the people". He advocated for transcending narrow domainal loyalties to forge a cohesive Japanese national identity.
Financial and monetary reforms
In 1870, while serving as deputy vice-minister of finance, Itō traveled to the United States to study its financial and monetary institutions. This investigative tour, which lasted from December 1870 to June 1871, directly influenced the establishment of Japan's New Currency Regulation (Shinka Jōrei) in 1871. This legislation placed Japan on the gold standard, aligning its monetary system with those of Western nations. Itō was an advocate of this reform, dispatching a memorandum from the U.S. that argued for its adoption based on the successful experience of "civilized Western countries". While the move to the gold standard was considered radical by some contemporaries, the reform also incorporated elements of continuity with Japan's pre-existing monetary framework.
Itō also played a major role in the development of a modern banking system in Japan. He advocated for the creation of a bank of issue, and in December 1872, the National Bank Regulation (Kokuritsu Ginkō Jōrei) was promulgated, drawing inspiration from America's National Bank Act. His proposal envisioned a system where national banks would be authorized to issue banknotes backed by government bonds. This was part of a strategy to gradually replace inconvertible paper currency with banknotes convertible into specie. This methodical, step-by-step approach to monetary reform was an early example of the cautious gradualism that characterized his broader reform philosophy.
Iwakura Mission and shift to gradualism
thumb|Members of the [[Iwakura Mission in San Francisco, 1872. From left: Kido Takayoshi, Yamaguchi Naoyoshi, Iwakura Tomomi, Itō, and Ōkubo Toshimichi.]]
From late 1871 to 1873, Itō served as one of four deputy ambassadors in the Iwakura Mission, a comprehensive eighteen-month diplomatic and investigative tour of the United States and Europe. As a central member of the embassy, his ability to deliver speeches in English made him an important asset. The primary objectives of the mission were to initiate preliminary negotiations for the revision of the unequal treaties imposed on Japan by Western powers and to observe and study various aspects of Western civilization, including political systems, industry, and education. Itō had been a key proponent of such an undertaking, having earlier suggested sending government officials abroad to study treaty revision and related international practices.
During the mission's initial leg in the United States, Itō's English proficiency and confident demeanor were notable, although his assertive style occasionally caused friction with some colleagues, such as Sasaki Takayuki. In January 1872, at a welcoming event in San Francisco, he delivered a widely reported address, subsequently known as the "rising sun speech" (hinomaru enzetsu). In this speech, he proudly described Japan's rapid advancements in adopting Western institutions and proclaimed the nation's strong aspiration to achieve a high level of civilization and take its place among the advanced nations of the world.
A significant diplomatic misstep occurred in Washington D.C. when Itō and fellow deputy ambassador Ōkubo Toshimichi advocated for immediate treaty renegotiation with the United States, deviating from the mission's original plan to engage with Western powers collectively at a later stage. They even returned to Japan briefly to secure the necessary full Letters of Credence for this purpose. However, upon their return to Washington, they discovered that the other mission members, having become aware of the complexities and potential disadvantages of unilateral most-favored-nation clauses, had decided to adhere to the original strategy. This "Letters of Credence Incident" was criticized within the mission and strained his relationship with Kido Takayoshi, another influential member of the mission.
Despite this setback, the Iwakura Mission significantly influenced his political outlook. His direct observations of political conditions in Europe, including periods of instability in France and the intricacies of Otto von Bismarck's Germany, led him to a deeper appreciation for well-established institutions and a more measured, gradual approach to national reform. This experience solidified Itō's transition from a proponent of more radical reforms to an advocate for gradual, systematic institution-building, adapted to Japan's specific conditions.
Father of the Meiji Constitution
Building the foundations (1873–1881)
thumb|Itō in 1873
Upon his return to Japan from the Iwakura Mission in September 1873, Itō was immediately thrust into the intense political debate surrounding the Seikanron (debate over conquering Korea). He aligned himself with senior leaders like Iwakura Tomomi, Kido Takayoshi, and Ōkubo Toshimichi, who opposed a military expedition to Korea, advocating instead for a focus on domestic development and gradual reform. Following the "Political Crisis of 1873" (Meiji rokunen seihen), which saw the resignation of key proponents of the expedition, including Saigō Takamori, Itō was appointed as a councilor (sangi) and concurrently as minister of public works, solidifying his position as a key figure in the government.
In November 1873, Itō, along with Terashima Munenori, was tasked with "investigating constitutional government" (seitai torishirabe), marking the formal beginning of Japan's journey towards a written constitution. He was significantly influenced by the ideas of Kido and Ōkubo, both of whom submitted memorials to the throne advocating for the eventual establishment of a constitutional system that would include popular participation, to be achieved through a gradual process. Itō began to formulate concrete plans, proposing the convention of prefectural governors to form a lower assembly and the expansion of an existing imperial advisory body, the Jakō-no-ma, into an upper assembly. These initiatives culminated in the Osaka Conference of 1875, a meeting of key Meiji leaders that resulted in an imperial edict promising the gradual establishment of constitutional government. This edict led to the creation of the Assembly of Prefectural Governors and the Genrōin (Chamber of Elders), institutions Itō saw as precursors to a future parliament.
In an 1880 opinion paper on the future constitution, submitted to Emperor Meiji, Itō reiterated his cautious approach. He advised against hastily establishing a full-fledged parliament, proposing instead a further strengthening of the Genrōin and the introduction of a system of public auditors, selected from the general populace, to oversee fiscal matters and promote transparency. This proposal underscored his commitment to gradualism and his belief that the emperor should publicly demonstrate this principle of measured reform. His stance contrasted sharply with the Confucian moralism of court advisers like Motoda Eifu, who advocated for a state doctrine based on traditional ethics. Itō, in his 1879 paper "On Education" (Kyōiku-gi), argued against the state controlling a "national doctrine" (kokkyō). His primary concern was the destabilizing effect of widespread political debate among an unprepared populace; he therefore advocated for practical, secular education to curb this tendency, rather than for a state-sponsored moral code.
Political Crisis of 1881 and European tour
thumb|left|Itō in [[Berlin in 1883, during his constitutional study tour]]
The political landscape underwent a significant upheaval with the "Political Crisis of 1881". Councilor Ōkuma Shigenobu, one of the more "enlightened of the younger statesmen" along with Itō and Inoue Kaoru, controversially submitted a proposal directly to the throne advocating for the immediate adoption of a British-style parliamentary cabinet system and the rapid establishment of a national assembly, with elections to be held as early as the following year. This move, perceived as a challenge to the established oligarchic leadership and their gradualist approach, combined with public outcry over the "Hokkaido Colonization Office Scandal", significantly weakened Ōkuma's position within the government. Antagonized by Ōkuma's unilateral action, Itō exploited the ensuing political crisis, offering his own resignation to force the issue. He secured agreement from senior statesmen on a gradualist approach based on a Prussian-influenced model, thereby resolving the internal bureaucratic struggle over the type and timing of the constitution. Upon successfully pushing for Ōkuma's resignation, Itō emerged as first among equals within the Meiji oligarchy. The buildings were collectively designated a National Historic Site in 1932.
thumb|Former Hakubun-ji Buddhist Temple in [[Seoul]]
In 1932, the Japanese unveiled the Hakubun-ji Buddhist Temple (博文寺) in Seoul, dedicated to Itō as the "Prince Itō Memorial Temple (伊藤公爵祈念寺院)". Situated in then Susumu Tadashidan Park on the north slope of Namsan, which after liberation became Jangchungdan Park 장충단 공원. From October 1945, the main hall served as student home, ca. 1960 replaced by a guest house of the Park Chung-Hee administration, then reconstructed and again a student guest house. In 1979 it was incorporated into the grounds of the Shilla Hotel then opened. Several other parts of the temple are still at the site.
Honours
Japanese
Peerages and other titles
- Count (7 July 1884)
- Genrō (1 November 1889)
- Marquess (5 August 1895)
- Prince (21 September 1907)
Decorations
- 50px|ribbon bar Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (2 November 1877)
- 50px Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (11 February 1889)
- 50px Imperial Constitution Promulgation Medal (25 November 1889)
- 50px Medal of Honor with Yellow ribbon (20 June 1890)
- 50px Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (5 August 1895)
- 50px First Sino-Japanese War Medal (18 November 1895)
- 50px Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (1 April 1906)
- 50px Russo-Japanese War Medal (1 April 1906)
- 50px Crown Prince's Voyage to Korea Commemorative Medal (18 April 1909)
Court ranks
- Fifth rank, junior grade (1868)
- Fifth rank (1869)
- Fourth rank (1870)
- Senior fourth rank (18 February 1874)
- Third rank (27 December 1884)
- Second rank (19 October 1886)
- Senior second rank (20 December 1895)
- Junior First Rank (26 October 1909; posthumous)
Foreign
- :
- Knight 1st Class of the Order of the Crown (29 December 1884)
- Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle (22 December 1886); in Brilliants (December 1901)
- : Grand Cross of the Order of the White Falcon (29 September 1882)
- :
- Knight of the Order of the White Eagle (17 September 1883)
- Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (19 March 1896); in Brilliants (28 November 1901)
- : Honorary Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (civil division) (14 January 1902)