Iranian architecture

Iranian architecture or Persian architecture () is the architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Its history dates back to at least 5,000 BC with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Iranian buildings vary greatly in scale and function, from vernacular architecture to monumental complexes. In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as the capital Tehran has brought about a wave of demolition and new construction.

According to American historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope, the supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods. Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, from a variety of traditions and experience. Without sudden innovations, and despite the repeated trauma of invasions and cultural shocks, it developed a recognizable style distinct from other regions of the Muslim world. Its virtues are "a marked feeling for form and scale; structural inventiveness, especially in vault and dome construction; a genius for decoration with a freedom and success not rivaled in any other architecture".

General characteristics

Fundamental principles

Traditional Iranian architecture has maintained a continuity that, although temporarily distracted by internal political conflicts or foreign invasion, nonetheless has achieved an unmistakable style.

According to scholars Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven". This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Iran, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well.

Materials

thumb|upright=1.2|[[Arg-e Bam, a historic citadel and a major example of earthen architecture, built mainly from cob and adobe]]

Available building materials dictate major forms in traditional Iranian architecture. Heavy clays, readily available at various places throughout the plateau, have encouraged the development of the most primitive of all building techniques, molded mud, compressed as solidly as possible, and allowed to dry. This technique, used in Iran from ancient times, has never been completely abandoned. The abundance of heavy plastic earth, in conjunction with a tenacious lime mortar, also facilitated the development and use of brick.

Design

upright|thumb|[[Persian column|Persian-style column at ancient Persepolis, with capital sculpted in double-bull form|left]]

Certain design elements of Persian architecture have persisted throughout the history of Iran. The most striking are a marked feeling for scale and a discerning use of simple and massive forms. The consistency of decorative preferences, the high-arched portal set within a recess, columns with bracket capitals, and recurrent types of plan and elevation can also be mentioned. Through the ages these elements have recurred in completely different types of buildings, constructed for various programs and under the patronage of a long succession of rulers.

right|thumb|[[Eram Garden (19th century) in Shiraz, with example of a talar]]

The columned porch, or talar, seen in the rock-cut tombs near Persepolis, reappear in Sassanid temples, and in late Islamic times it was used as the portico of a palace or mosque, and adapted even to the architecture of roadside tea-houses. Similarly, the dome on four arches, so characteristic of Sassanid times, is a still to be found in many cemeteries and Imamzadehs across Iran today. The notion of earthly towers reaching up toward the sky to mingle with the divine towers of heaven lasted into the 19th century, while the interior court and pool, the angled entrance and extensive decoration are ancient, but still common, features of Iranian architecture.

Categorization of styles

Overall, Mohammad Karim Pirnia categorizes the traditional architecture of the Iranian lands throughout the ages into the six following classes or styles ("sabk"):

Zoroastrian:
The Parsian style (up until the third century BCE) including:
Pre-Parsian style (up until the eighth century BCE) e.g. Chogha Zanbil,
Median style (from the eighth to the sixth century BCE),
Achaemenid style (from the sixth to the fourth century BCE) manifesting in construction of spectacular cities used for governance and inhabitation (such as Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana), temples made for worship and social gatherings (such as Zoroastrian temples), and mausoleums erected in honor of fallen kings (such as the Tomb of Cyrus the Great),
The Parthian style includes designs from the following eras:
Seleucid era e.g. Anahita Temple, Khorheh,
Parthian era e.g. Hatra, the royal compounds at Nisa,
Sasanian era e.g. Ghal'eh Dokhtar, Taq Kasra, Bishapur, Darband (Derbent).
Islamic:
The Khorasani style (from the late 7th until the end of the 10th century CE), e.g. Jameh Mosque of Nain and Jameh Mosque of Isfahan,
The Razi style (from the 11th century to the Mongol invasion period) which includes the methods and devices of the following periods:
Samanid period, e.g. Samanid Mausoleum,
Ziyarid period, e.g. Gonbad-e Qabus,
Seljuk period, e.g. Kharraqan towers,
The Azari style (from the late 13th century to the appearance of the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century), e.g. Soltaniyeh, Arg of Tabriz, Jameh Mosque of Varamin, Goharshad Mosque, Bibi-Khanym Mosque in Samarkand, tomb of Abdas-Samad, Gur-e Amir, Jameh Mosque of Yazd
The Isfahani style spanning through the Safavid, Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar eras starting from the 16th century onward, e.g. Chehel Sotoun, Ali Qapu, Agha Bozorg Mosque, Shah Mosque, Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque in Naqsh-e Jahan Square.

Pre-Islamic architecture

thumb|[[Hatra in Nineveh, Iraq]]

Hatra was a religious and trading center. Today it is a World Heritage Site, protected by UNESCO.

thumb|[[Pasargadae]]The pre-Islamic styles draw on 3000 to 4000 years of architectural development from various civilizations of the Iranian plateau. The post-Islamic architecture of Iran in turn, draws ideas from its pre-Islamic predecessor, and has geometrical and repetitive forms, as well as surfaces that are richly decorated with glazed tiles, carved stucco, patterned brickwork, floral motifs, and calligraphy.

Iran is recognized by UNESCO as being one of the cradles of civilization.

Each of the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that spread to other cultures. Although Iran has suffered its share of destruction, including Alexander The Great's decision to burn Persepolis, there are sufficient remains to form a picture of its classical architecture.

The Achaemenids built on a grand scale. The artists and materials were brought in from practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. Pasargadae set the standard: its city was laid out in an extensive park with bridges, gardens, colonnaded palaces and open column pavilions. Pasargadae along with Susa and Persepolis expressed the authority of 'The King of Kings', the staircases of the latter recording in relief sculpture the vast extent of the imperial frontier.

With the emergence of the Parthians and Sassanids new forms appeared. Parthian innovations fully flowered during the Sassanid period with massive barrel-vaulted chambers, solid masonry domes and tall columns. This influence was to remain for years to come.

For example, the roundness of the city of Baghdad in the Abbasid era, points to its Persian precedents, such as Firouzabad in Fars. Al-Mansur hired two designers to plan the city's design: Naubakht, a former Persian Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city should be astrologically significant, and Mashallah ibn Athari, a former Jew from Khorasan.

The ruins of Persepolis, Ctesiphon, Tepe Sialk, Pasargadae, Firouzabad, and Arg-e Bam give us a distant glimpse of what contributions Persians made to the art of building. The imposing Sassanid castle built at Derbent, Dagestan (now part of Russia) is one of the most extant and living examples of splendid Sassanid Iranian architecture. Since 2003, the Sassanid castle has been listed on Russia's UNESCO World Heritage list.

Sub-periods

According to Mohammad Karim Pirnia, the ancient architecture of Iran can be divided into the following periods.

Pre-Parsian style

The pre-Parsian style (New Persian:شیوه معماری پیش از پارسی) is a sub-style of architecture (or "zeer-sabk") when categorizing the history of Persian/Iranian architectural development. This architectural style flourished in the Iranian Plateau until the eighth century BC, during the era of the Median Empire. It is often classified as a subcategory of Parsian architecture. The oldest remains of the architectural landmarks in this style are the Teppe Zagheh, near Qazvin. Other extant examples of this style are Chogha Zanbil, Tepe Sialk, Shahr-e Sukhteh, and Ecbatana. Elamite and proto-Elamite buildings among others, are covered within this stylistic subcategory as well.

Image:Sialk1.jpg|Sialk necropolis. 3000–4000 BC

Image:Choghazanbil2.jpg|Chogha Zanbil ziggurat. 1250 BC

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Parsian style

The "Persian style" (New Persian:شیوه معماری پارسی) is a style of architecture ("sabk") defined by Mohammad Karim Pirnia when categorizing the history of Persian/Iranian architectural development. Although Median and Achaemenid architecture fall under this classification, pre Achaemenid architecture is also considered a sub category.

File:History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria (1903) (14584070300).jpg|Palace of Darius in Susa

File:Gate of All Nations, Persepolis.jpg|Persepolis

File:Pasargad audience hall.jpg|Pasargad

File:Naqsh-e rostam.JPG|Naqsh-e Rostam

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Parthian style

This architectural style includes designs from the Seleucid (310–140 BCE), Parthian (247 BCE – 224 CE), and Sassanid (224–651 CE) eras, reaching its apex of development in the Sassanid period. Examples of this style are Qal'eh Dokhtar, the royal compounds at Nisa, Anahita Temple, Khorheh, Hatra, the Taq Kasra, Bishapur, and the Palace of Ardashir in Ardeshir Khwarreh (Firuzabad).

Islamic architecture

Early Islamic period (7th–9th centuries)

The Islamic era began with the formation of Islam under the leadership of Muhammad in early 7th-century Arabia. The Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia began soon afterwards and ended with the region coming under the control of the Rashidun Caliphs, followed by the Umayyad Caliphs after 661. Early Islamic architecture was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture and Sasanian architecture. Umayyad architecture (661–750) drew on elements of these traditions, mixing them together and adapting them to the requirements of the new Muslim patrons.

After the overthrow of the Umayyads in 750 and their replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate, the caliphate's political center shifted further east to the new capital of Baghdad, in present-day Iraq. Partly as a result of this, Abbasid architecture was even more influenced by Sasanian architecture and by its roots in ancient Mesopotamia. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the power and unity of the Abbasid Caliphate allowed architectural features and innovations from its heartlands to spread quickly to other areas of the Islamic world under its influence, including Iran.

Features from the Umayyad period, such as vaulting, carved stucco, and painted wall decoration, were continued and elaborated in the Abbasid period. Samarra also saw the appearance of new decorative styles, which rendered the earlier vegetal motifs of Sasanian and Byzantine traditions into more abstract and stylized forms, as exemplified by the so-called "beveled" style. This style subsequently spread to other regions, including Iran.

left|thumb|Remains of the Jameh Mosque of [[Siraf (9th century)]]

Few of the major mosques built during this early Islamic period in Iran have survived in something close to their original form. Remains of a mosque at Susa, probably from the Abbasid period, show that it had a hypostyle prayer hall (i.e. a hall with many columns supporting a roof) and a courtyard.

thumb|[[Tarikhaneh Mosque, one of the oldest preserved mosques in Iran]]

The only major mosque from this early period to preserve some of its original form is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Damghan. Though the chronology of its construction is not well-documented, its overall form and style may date to the 9th century, or possibly earlier, given its close similarities with Sassanid architecture. It has a courtyard surrounded by a portico and a hypostyle prayer hall where the central aisle leading to the mihrab (a niche in the wall symbolizing the qibla) is slightly wider than the other aisles. It originally had no minaret, but a tall cylindrical tower was added to it in 1026. This minaret is now the oldest one still standing in Iran.

In secular architecture, the remains of various palaces and residences from this period have also been studied, such as those around Merv (present-day Turkmenistan). They shared many features with earlier Sasanian and Sogdian architecture. In Iran and Central Asia, a number of local and regional dynasties rose to power by the 10th century: Iraq and central Iran were controlled by the Buyid dynasty, northern Iran was ruled by the Bawandids and Ziyarids, and the northeastern regions of Khurasan and Transoxiana were ruled by the Samanids, with other dynasties arising in Central Asia soon after.

thumb|Early example of [[muqarnas squinches, inside the Duvazdah Imam Mausoleum in Yazd (1037–8)]]

It is around this period that many of the distinctive features of subsequent Iranian and Central Asian architecture first emerged, including the use of baked brick for both construction and decoration, the use of glazed tile for surface decoration, and the development of muqarnas (three-dimensional geometric vaulting) from squinches. Hypostyle mosques continued to be built and there is also evidence of multi-domed mosques, though most mosques were modified or rebuilt in later eras.

thumb|[[Samanid Mausoleum in Bukhara (10th century), one of the oldest monumental tombs in the Islamic world.]]

Another important architectural trend to arise in the 10th to 11th centuries is the development of mausolea, which took on monumental forms for the first time. One type of mausoleum was the tomb tower, such as the Gonbad-e Qabus (circa 1006–7), while the other main type was the domed square, such as the Samanid Mausoleum in Bukhara (before 943). Much of the Seljuk architectural heritage was destroyed during the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Nonetheless, compared to pre-Seljuk Iran, a larger volume of surviving monuments and artifacts from the Seljuk period has allowed scholars to study the arts of this era in greater depth. The four-iwan plan quickly became popular and was applied to other major mosques around this time, including those of Ardestan and Zavareh, as well as in secular architecture.

Ilkhanids (13th–14th centuries)

left|thumb|upright|Entrance portal with muqarnas vaulting, twin minarets, and tile decoration at the [[Jameh Mosque of Yazd, Ilkhanid period (14th century)]]

From the 13th century to the early 16th century, Iran and Central Asia came under the control of two major dynasties descended from the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan, the Ilkhanate (1256–1353) and the Timurids (1370–1506). This period saw the construction of some of the largest and most ambitious Iranian monuments of the Islamic world. The Ilkhanids were initially traditional nomadic Mongols, but at the end of the 13th century, Ghazan Khan () converted to Islam and aided a cultural and economic resurgence in which urban Iranian culture was of primary importance. Ilkhanid vassals, like the Muzaffarids and the Jalayirids, also sponsored new constructions. Smaller tombs and shrines in honour of local Sufis were also built or renovated by Ilkhanid patrons, such as the shrine of Bayazid Bastami in the town of Bastam, the aforementioned Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran, and the aforementioned Tomb of Abd-al-Samad. Also in Bastam, the Ilkhanids built a traditional tower tomb to house the remains of Uljaytu's infant son. Unusually, rather than being an independent structure, the tomb was erected behind the qibla wall of the town's main mosque – a configuration also found in some contemporary Mamluk architecture.

Timurids (14th–15th centuries)

left|thumb|[[Bibi-Khanym Mosque|Bibi Khanum Mosque in Samarkand (1399–1405)]]

The Timurid Empire, created by Timur (), oversaw another cultural renaissance. Timurid architecture continued the tradition of Ilkhanid architecture, building monuments once again on a grand scale and with lavish decoration made to impress, but they also refined previous designs and techniques.

Under Ulugh Beg (), the Registan Square in Samarkand was first transformed into a monumental complex similar to what it is today. He built three structures around the square, of which only the Ulugh Beg Madrasa (1417–1420) survives today (two other monumental structures were erected around the square at later periods), with a large façade covered by a rich variety of decoration.

Timurid patronage was of high importance in the history of art and architecture across a wide part of the Islamic world. The international Timurid style was eventually integrated into the visual culture of the rising Ottoman Empire in the west, while to the east it was transmitted to the Indian subcontinent by the Mughals, who were descended from Timur.

thumb|Interior of the [[Blue Mosque, Tabriz|Blue Mosque in Tabriz (1465), built by the Qara Qoyunlu]]

During the late 14th and 15th centuries, western Iran was dominated by two powerful Turkoman confederations, the Qara Qoyunlu and the Aq Qoyunlu. While few monuments sponsored by either faction have been preserved, what does remain shows that the Timurid style was already spreading westward during this period. One of the most significant Qara Qoyunlu monuments is the Blue Mosque or Muzaffariya Mosque (1465) in Tabriz, now partly ruined. It has an unusual T-shaped layout around a central dome, not unlike the Ottoman Green Mosque in Bursa, and is decorated with a revetment of very high-quality tilework in six colours, including a deep blue.

Safavids and Uzbeks (16th–18th centuries)

The Safavids, who forged a large Shi'i empire in the 16th century that encompassed all of Iran and some neighbouring regions, initially inherited the traditions of Timurid architecture. To adapt this tradition into a new imperial style, Safavid architects pushed it to an even grander scale. Safavid architecture simplified Timurid architecture to an extent, creating large architectural ensembles that are arranged around more static, fixed perspectives that appear more ceremonial, with more uniform building exteriors and more streamlined vault designs.

thumb|[[Afif-Abad Garden (1863–1867) in Shiraz is an example of Achaemenid and Sasanian revivalism]]

Under Naser al-Din Shah (), new elements and styles of European inspiration began to be introduced, such as tall windows, pilasters, and formal staircases. At the Golestan Palace, he added the Shams ol-Emareh, a tall multi-leveled structure with two towers. He also remodelled Tehran, demolishing the dense urban fabric in parts of the old city, as well as its historic walls, and replacing them with boulevards and open squares inspired by what he saw in his visits to Europe. The thin, double-shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers.

The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the Safavid era, when Abbas the Great, in 1598, initiated the reconstruction of Isfahan, with the Naqsh-e Jahan Square as the centerpiece of his new capital. Architecturally they borrowed heavily from Il-Khanate designs, but artistically they elevated the designs to a new level.

The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal empires, was the use of colourful tiles, with which the exterior of domes are covered much like the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in Isfahan and the distinct blue shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light of the sun, these domes appeared like glittering turquoise gems and could be seen from miles away by travelers following the Silk road through Persia.

This very distinct style of architecture was inherited from the Seljuk era, who for centuries had used it in their mosque building, but it was perfected during the Safavids when they invented the haft-rang, or seven colour style of tile burning, a process that enabled them to apply more colours to each tile, creating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye. The colours that the Persians favoured were gold, white and turquoise patterns on a dark-blue background. The extensive inscription bands of calligraphy and arabesque on most of the major buildings where carefully planned and executed by Ali Reza Abbasi, who was appointed head of the royal library and Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598, while Shaykh Bahai oversaw the construction projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, the dome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would become the tallest in the city when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double-shelled dome, spanning 14 m between the two layers and resting on an octagonal dome chamber.

File:Detail of Gur-e-Amir Mausoleum - Samarkand - Uzbekistan - 01 (7480314806).jpg|Dome of Gur-e Amir Mausoleum in Samakand (early 14th century)

File:Shah-Mosque-Esfahan.jpg|Example of a common shape of Persian dome at the Shah Mosque in Isfahan (early 17th century)

File:Jamkaran Mosque-3855.jpg|Jamkaran Mosque, near Qom (21st century)

File:مسجد سالن اجلاس بین المللی اصفهان.jpg|Modern dome architecture in the proposed mosque of Isfahan international convention center

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Contemporary Iranian architecture

Contemporary architecture in Iran begins with the advent of the first Pahlavi period in the early 1920s. Some designers, such as Andre Godard, created works such as the National Museum of Iran that were reminiscent of Iran's historical architectural heritage. Others made an effort to merge the traditional elements with modern designs in their works. The Tehran University main campus is one such example. Others, such as Heydar Ghiai and Houshang Seyhoun, have tried to create completely original works, independent of prior influences. Dariush Borbor's architecture successfully combined modern architecture with local vernacular. The Azadi Tower, originally called the Shadyad Tower, was completed in 1971 and has since become one of the major landmarks of Tehran. Designed by Hossein Amanat, it incorporates forms and ideas from historic Iranian architecture. Milad Tower (or Milad Tower), completed in 2007, is the tallest tower in Iran and is the 24th tallest free-standing structure in the world.

Modern Iranian architecture is also notable for its use of brickwork for functional and aesthetic purposes, adapted to the arid climate of Iran and informed by Iran's vernacular architecture and traditional brickwork techniques.

File:Palais du Senat iranien (1970).jpg|Iran Senate House Traditional Persian mythology such as the chains of justice of Nowshiravan and essences of Iranian architecture have been incorporated by Heydar Ghiai to create a new modern Iranian architecture.

File:Contemporary arts tehran.jpg|Tehran's Museum of Contemporary Arts designed by Kamran Diba is based on traditional Iranian elements such as Badgirs, and yet has a spiraling interior reminiscent of Frank Lloyd Wright's Guggenheim.

File:UTehran college social sciences.jpg|Tehran University College of Social Sciences shows obvious traces of architecture from Persepolis.

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Iranian architects

[[File:Iranian film logo.jpg|thumb|right|80px|Click here for animation of Iranian architecture.]]The first professional association of Iranian architects, the Society of Iranian Diplomate Architects, was founded on 30 January 1945. Its founders were Iranian architects, including Vartan Avanessian, Mohsen Foroughi, and Keyghobad Zafar. Foreign architects had been very prominent in Iran during the early 20th century, and one of the new association's activities was the publication of a magazine, Architecte, which promoted Iranian architects. In 1966, a new professional association was founded, the Association of Iranian Architects. Its founders included Vartan Avanessian, Abass Azhdari, Naser Badi, Abdelhamid Eshraq, Manuchehr Khorsandi, Iraj Moshiri, Ali Sadeq, and Keyghobad Zafar. A number of Iranian architects have also won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, including:

Bagh-e-Ferdowsi, Tehran. 1999–2001
New Life for Old Structures, Various locations. 1999–2001
Ali Qapu, Chehel Sutun, and Hasht Behesht, Isfahan. 1978–1980

UNESCO designated World Heritage Sites

250px|thumb|[[Ziggurats such as the UNESCO designated World Heritage Site of Chogha Zanbil, which relieved the flat monotony of the southern Khuzestan plane, were but "ritual imitations of the familiar sacred mountains which ring the Iranian plateau".]]

The following is a list of World Heritage Sites designed or constructed by Iranians, or designed and constructed in the style of Iranian architecture:

Inside Iran:
Arg-e Bam Cultural Landscape, Kerman
Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Isfahan
Pasargadae, Fars
Persepolis, Fars
Chogha Zanbil, Khuzestan
Takht-e Soleyman, West Azerbaijan
Dome of Soltaniyeh, Zanjan
Behistun Inscription, Kermanshah province
Outside Iran:
Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar, Turkmenistan
Ruins of Konye-Urgench, Turkmenistan
Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi, Kazakhstan
Historic Centre of Baku, Azerbaijan
Historic Centre of Ganja, Azerbaijan
Historic Centre of Bukhara, Uzbekistan
Historic Centre of Shahrisabz, Uzbekistan
Itchan Kala of Khiva, Uzbekistan
Samarkand, Uzbekistan
Citadel, Ancient City and Fortress Buildings of Derbent, Daghestan, Russia
Baha'i Gardens, Haifa, Israel
Bibi-Heybat Mosque, Azerbaijan
Tuba Shahi Mosque, Azerbaijan
Palace of Shaki Khans, Shaki, Azerbaijan

References

Citations

Sources

External links

United Iranian Architects of Europe
Tehranimages. Contemporary photos taken in some of the oldest districts of Tehran.
Contemporary Architecture of Iran's Official Website

Iranian architecture

General characteristics

Fundamental principles

Materials

Design

Categorization of styles

Pre-Islamic architecture

Sub-periods

Pre-Parsian style

Parsian style

Parthian style

Islamic architecture

Early Islamic period (7th–9th centuries)

Ilkhanids (13th–14th centuries)

Timurids (14th–15th centuries)

Safavids and Uzbeks (16th–18th centuries)

Contemporary Iranian architecture

Iranian architects

UNESCO designated World Heritage Sites

See also

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links