Hurricane Diane

Hurricane Diane was the first Atlantic hurricane to cause more than an estimated $1 billion in damage ($ billion in ), including direct costs and the loss of business and personal revenue. It formed on August 7 from a tropical wave between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde. Diane initially moved west-northwestward with little change in its intensity, but began to strengthen rapidly after turning to the north-northeast. On August 12, the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 105 mph (165 km/h), making it a Category 2 hurricane. Gradually weakening after veering back west, Diane made landfall near Wilmington, North Carolina, as a strong tropical storm on August 17, just five days after Hurricane Connie struck near the same area. Diane weakened further after moving inland, at which point the United States Weather Bureau noted a decreased threat of further destruction. The storm turned to the northeast, and warm waters from the Atlantic Ocean helped produce record rainfall across the northeastern United States. On August 19, Diane emerged into the Atlantic Ocean southeast of New York City, becoming extratropical two days later and completely dissipating by August 23.

The first area affected by Diane was North Carolina, which suffered coastal flooding but little wind and rain damage. After the storm weakened in Virginia, it maintained an area of moisture that resulted in heavy rainfall after interacting with the Blue Ridge Mountains, a process known as orographic lift. Flooding affected roads and low-lying areas along the Potomac River. The northernmost portion of Delaware also saw freshwater flooding, although to a much lesser extent than adjacent states. Diane produced heavy rainfall in eastern Pennsylvania, causing the worst floods on record there, largely in the Poconos and along the Delaware River. Rushing waters demolished about 150 road and rail bridges and breached or destroyed 30 dams. The swollen Brodhead Creek virtually submerged a summer camp, killing 37 people. Throughout Pennsylvania, the disaster killed 101 people and caused an estimated $70 million in damage ($ million in ). Additional flooding spread through the northwest portion of neighboring New Jersey, forcing hundreds of people to evacuate and destroying several bridges, including one built in 1831. Storm damage was evident but less significant in southeastern New York.

Damage from Diane was heaviest in Connecticut, where rainfall peaked at 16.86 in (428 mm) near Torrington. The storm produced the state's largest flood on record, which effectively split the state into two by destroying bridges and cutting communications. All major streams and valleys were flooded, and 30 stream gauges reported their highest levels on record. The Connecticut River at Hartford reached a water level of 30.6 ft (9.3 m), the third highest on record there. The flooding destroyed a large section of downtown Winsted, much of which was never rebuilt. Record-high tides and flooded rivers heavily damaged Woonsocket, Rhode Island. In Massachusetts, flood water levels surpassed those during the 1938 New England Hurricane, breaching multiple dams and inundating adjacent towns and roads. Throughout New England, 206 dams were damaged or destroyed, and about 7,000 people were injured. Nationwide, Diane killed at least 184 people and destroyed 813 houses, with another 14,000 homes heavily damaged. In the hurricane's wake, eight states were declared federal disaster areas, and the name Diane was retired.

Meteorological history

Hurricane Diane originated in a tropical wave first observed as a tropical depression on August 7 between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde. The system moved generally to the west-northwest, intensifying into a tropical storm on August 9. By the time the Weather Bureau first classified the storm on August 10, Diane was south of the Bermuda high, a semi-permanent ridge in the jet stream just east of Nova Scotia. Ships in the region of the storm reported winds of . During the next day, the Hurricane Hunters reported no increase in strength, and Diane initially remained disorganized. after which it weakened due to cooler air in the region. By August 15, the eye had become poorly defined, and winds steadily weakened. As it approached land, its center deteriorated, with minimal precipitation near the center; the eye was observed on a radar installed in July 1955. On August 17, Diane made landfall on the coast of North Carolina near Wilmington. Diane struck the state only five days after Hurricane Connie struck the same general area. The weakening system turned to the north and recurved toward the northeast through Virginia after a ridge built in from the west. It did not interact much with the non-tropical westerlies, and as a result it remained a distinct tropical cyclone over land. Convection redeveloped as the storm approached the Atlantic coast once again. The threat of the hurricane forced the planned retirement ceremony for Admiral Robert Carney to be transferred from an aircraft carrier in Norfolk, Virginia to an academy dormitory. All aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point were flown to safer locations further inland.

All hurricane warnings were dropped after Diane moved inland. The agency later admitted they "goofed" in downplaying the storm's destructive potential after weakening, Once the storm moved ashore, the Weather Bureau transferred official forecasting duties to regional offices, and local newspapers also issued their own forecasts. The Springfield Daily News in Massachusetts noted that "moderate rains [were] possible" in its daily weather forecast ahead of the storm. Still, flood warnings were issued, with stream flooding forecasts of over 12 hours in advance. Along smaller rivers, including the Lehigh, Schuylkill, and Farmington, forecasts were issued every few hours. Along the Delaware River in the 1930s, state legislatures in New Jersey and Pennsylvania had established a commission that worked to clean up polluted water, but the legislators and commission blocked federal help, comparing it to European socialism; this was in contrast to the federally funded Tennessee Valley Authority, which mitigated flooding along the Tennessee River.

Impact

Hurricane Diane's path over the eastern United States brought heavy rainfall, fueled by unusually moist air resulting from abnormally high sea surface temperatures. The worst flooding was in eastern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey, southeastern New York, and southern New England. Most of the flooding occurred along small rivers that rose to flood stage within hours, largely impacting populated areas; The storms damage caused over 35,000 families to re locate. The floods also severed infrastructure and affected several summer camps. Damage to public utilities was estimated at $79 million. Flooding in rural areas resulted in landslides in the mountains, while destroyed crops cost an estimated $7 million. Hundreds of miles of roads and bridges were also destroyed, accounting for $82 million in damage. of which $600 million was in New England, Taking into account indirect losses, such as loss of wages and business earnings, Diane was described as "the first billion dollar hurricane."

Carolinas

The strongest sustained winds associated with Diane's landfall in North Carolina reached in Hatteras, with gusts to in Wilmington. Any hurricane-force gusts were likely very sporadic and isolated in nature. Tides ran above normal near Wilmington, and waves in height struck the coast. The resultant storm surge damaged beach houses, flooded coastal roads, and destroyed seawalls damaged by Hurricane Connie a few days prior.

Mid-Atlantic

thumb|right|Extent of flooding in the northeastern United States, caused by Diane

After Diane crossed into Virginia, it dropped heavy rainfall of over in 24 hours in the Blue Ridge Mountains, There, the rains were enhanced by moist air rising over the mountain peaks and condensing, a process known as orographic lift. Wind gusts reached in Roanoke.

Flooding began in many streams in eastern Pennsylvania on August 18. The Delaware River crested at over in Easton, which was above the previous record set in 1903. In Allentown, the Lehigh River crested at , surpassing the previous record of set in 1942. The Brodhead Creek also washed out a bridge along U.S. Route 209 between Stroudsburg and East Stroudsburg, flooding both cities. In Trenton, workers used sandbags to prevent flooding from affecting government buildings. This is the highest rainfall on record in the state. The highest rainfall in the United States related to the storm was in Westfield, Massachusetts, which was also the wettest known storm in the state's history as well as throughout New England. About 7,000 people were injured throughout New England, most of whom in Connecticut. The Quinebaug River flooded the city of Putnam at the same time that a major fire originated at a magnesium plant. Much of the commercial district of Winsted was destroyed by the Mad River, which reached deep; the floods destroyed most buildings on the south side of the town's Main Street, and carried away several cars from a car dealership. The local newspaper reported that 95% of businesses were destroyed or severely damaged in Winsted. The Little River in Buffumville, Massachusetts had a peak discharge of 8,340 ft³/s (236 m³/s), which was 6.2 times greater than the previous peak and 28.5 times the average annual flooding. Flooded rivers breached run-of-the-river dams and covered nearby roadways, although dams with reservoirs resulted in less flooding. Nearly all dams along the French River were severely damaged or destroyed. After the floods of Hurricane Diane, more than 100,000 people fled to shelter or away from their houses. The American Red Cross quickly provided aid to the affected residents, The countries of Great Britain, Netherlands, Australia, Canada, France, Austria, and Venezuela offered aid to help the flood victims, sending emergency supplies. Additional flooding affected New England in September and October 1955, although neither was as major as those caused by Hurricane Diane.

President Dwight Eisenhower declared eight states as disaster areas, making them eligible for federal aid. The Small Business Administration opened 18 temporary offices in the eastern United States for people to take out disaster loan applications. In the months after the storm, both the United States federal government and the American Red Cross had difficulty raising enough funds for the storm victims; collectively, the Red Cross, the Small Business Administration, and Farmers Home Administration raised $37 million, which was less than 8% of Diane's damage total. Throughout 1955, the Red Cross assisted about 10,000 families in New England and the Mid-Atlantic states; some of the families received aid to move to a new house not in a flood zone. The Small Business Administration provided about 1,600 loans, totaling $25 million, for small businesses. Senator Herbert H. Lehman proposed a $12 billion federal flood insurance program. In 1956, the United States Congress passed the Federal Flood Insurance Act, but the program was not enacted due to lack of funding. A nationwide flood program was not enacted until the passage of the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968. After the floods from Diane, the American federal government provided funding for the Army Corps of Engineers to construct dams and reservoirs throughout New England to mitigate future flooding. In about 14 years, the Corps built 29 dams in Connecticut alone at the cost of $70 million, including three along the Connecticut River.

In Pennsylvania, washed-out rail lines prevented operation along the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad for several weeks, One stranded train along the line prompted a helicopter to rescue 235 people. Flooding along the Lehigh River destroyed 15 industrial plants, which left more than 15,000 people near Allentown, Pennsylvania without work temporarily. The mayor of Scranton declared a state of emergency due to the floods, ordering all businesses to close. United States Army soldiers provided water to residents after the town lost its water supply. Elsewhere, the Pennsylvania National Guard was on duty on streets in damaged towns, In Stroudsburg, there was a food shortage, and officials enacted a curfew, after reports of looting. In the same city, water was shipped in milk cartons to the flood victims, which later inspired a Federal Civil Defense Administration proposal to use water packaged in milk containers in the event of a nuclear attack. The state government implemented a tax on cigarettes to help pay for storm damage, which lasted for about two years; this was partially due to a lack of significant funding from the federal government. The two taxes, each an increase of 1 penny, totaled $71 million, a part of which was set aside for future disasters. The experience of the storm's aftermath provided the basis for the aftermath for Hurricane Agnes in 1972. In New Jersey, Governor Robert B. Meyner declared the floods as at the time the state's worst natural disaster. The declaration allocated $25 million in assistance to the state. Governor Ribicoff requested $34 million in funds to rebuild and produce future flood mitigation projects; the state's funding was paid by a combination of bonds and tax increases. Boston's 24‑hour total of remained the highest daily total as of 1996. Following Diane's floods, cities in Massachusetts enlarged culverts and improved draining systems, as well as constructing weirs; these systems helped mitigate against future flooding.

Spurred by the impacts of the several major hurricanes along the U.S. Atlantic seaboard in 1954 and 1955, including Diane, the U.S.Congress authorized funding for the United States Weather Bureau to establish the National Hurricane Research Project to conduct research into hurricanes and hurricane forecasting. Out of this grew the National Hurricane Center in 1956.

Retirement

On account of the extensive damage and high death toll, the name Diane was retired by the U.S. Weather Bureau after the 1955 season. The name will never again be used for an Atlantic basin tropical cyclone.

Notes

References

McCarthy Earls, Eamon (2014). Twisted Sisters: How Four Superstorms Forever Changed the Northeast in 1954 & 1955. Franklin: Via Appia Press (www.viaappiapress.com). .