The House of Wisdom ( ), also known as the Grand Library of Baghdad, was believed to be a major Abbasid-era public academy and intellectual center in Baghdad. In popular reference, it acted as one of the world's largest public libraries during the Islamic Golden Age, and was founded either as a library for the collections of the fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid () in the late 8th century or as a private collection of the second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur () to house rare books and collections in the Arabic language. During the reign of the seventh Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun (), it was turned into a public academy and a library.
It was destroyed in 1258 during the Mongol siege of Baghdad.
More recently, the narrative of the Abbasid House of Wisdom acting as a major intellectual center, university, and playing a sizable role during the translation movement has been understood by some historians to be a myth, constructed originally over the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by Orientalists and, through their works, propagated its way into scholarship and nationally oriented works until more recent re-investigations of the evidence.
Background
Greco-Arabic translation movement
The House of Wisdom existed as a part of the major Translation Movement taking place during the Abbasid Era, translating works from Greek and Syriac to Arabic, but it is unlikely that the House of Wisdom existed as the sole center of such work, as major translation efforts arose in Cairo and Damascus even earlier than the proposed establishment of the House of Wisdom. This translation movement lent momentum to a great deal of original research occurring in the Muslim world, which had access to texts from Greek, Persian, and Indian sources. The rise of advanced research into mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and medicine was the beginning of Arabic science, and drove demand for more and updated translations.
Influx of scholars
The House of Wisdom was made possible by the consistent flow of Arab, Persian, and other scholars of the Islamic world to Baghdad, owing to the city's position as capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Numerous books and documents covering several scientific concepts and philosophical subjects in different languages were translated in this house.
History
Origins and establishment
thumb|300px|right|The earliest scientific [[manuscripts originated in the Abbasid era]]
Throughout the 4th to 7th centuries, scholarly work in the Arabic languages was either newly initiated or carried on from the Hellenistic period. Centers of learning and of transmission of classical wisdom included colleges such as the School of Nisibis and later the School of Edessa, and the renowned hospital and medical Academy of Gondishapur; libraries included the Library of Alexandria and the Imperial Library of Constantinople; and other centers of translation and learning functioned at Merv, Salonika, Nishapur and Ctesiphon, situated just south of what was later to become Baghdad.
During the Umayyad era, Muawiyah I started to gather a collection of books in Damascus. He then formed a library that was referred to as "Bayt al-Hikma". The Umayyads also appropriated paper-making techniques from the Chinese and joined many ancient intellectual centers under their rule, and employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge. These were fundamental elements that contributed directly to the flourishing of scholarship in the Arab world. and adopted many practices from the Sasanian Empire—among those, that of translating foreign works, except that now texts were translated into Arabic. For this purpose, al-Mansur founded a palace library modeled after the Sasanian Imperial Library, and provided economic and political support to the intellectuals working there. He also invited delegations of scholars from India and other places to share their knowledge of mathematics and astronomy with the new Abbasid court.
250px|thumb|[[Physicians employing a surgical method. From Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's Imperial Surgery (1465)]]
Al-Ma'mun's reign
Under the sponsorship of Caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), economic support of the House of Wisdom and scholarship in general was greatly increased. Al-Ma'mun, under the tutelage of his father, Caliph Harun al-Rashid, memorized the Quran word for word under the eyes of leading religious scholar of the court. Al-Ma'mun's mistakes were instantly corrected. It was a common trait amongst Muslim poets, scientists, and authors to memorize their original texts for public lectures, which were typically done inside a mosque. This practice appeared to be ingrained inside al-Ma'mun's intellectual capabilities.
His love for science was so great that it was said that he preferred scientific texts as the spoils of war.
The House of Wisdom was much more than an academic center removed from the broader society. Its experts served several functions in Baghdad. Scholars from the Bayt al-Hikma usually doubled as engineers and architects in major construction projects, kept accurate official calendars, and were public servants. They were also frequently medics and consultants. Inspired by Aristotle, al-Ma'mun regularly initiated discussion sessions and seminars among experts in Kalām; Kalām being an art of philosophical debate, which al-Ma'mun carried on from his Persian tutor, Ja'far. During such debates, scholars would discuss their fundamental Islamic beliefs and doctrines in an open, intellectual atmosphere. Al-Ma'mun built the first astronomical observatories in Baghdad, and he was also the first ruler to fund and monitor the progress of major research projects involving teams of scholars and scientists. In this way he was the first ruler to fund "big science".
thumb|400px|Al-Ma'mun sends an envoy to the Byzantine emperor [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]]
Following his predecessors, al-Ma'mun would send expeditions of scholars from the House of Wisdom to collect texts from foreign lands. In fact, one of the directors of the House was sent to Constantinople with this purpose. During this time, Sahl ibn Harun, a Persian poet and astrologer, was the chief librarian of the Bayt al-Hikma. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873), an Arab Church of the East Christian physician and scientist, was the most productive translator, producing 116 works for the Arabs. As "Sheikh of the translators," he was placed in charge of the translation work by the caliph. Hunayn ibn Ishaq translated the entire collection of Greek medical books, including famous pieces by Galen and Hippocrates. The Sabian Thābit ibn Qurra (826–901) also translated great works by Apollonius, Archimedes, Euclid and Ptolemy. Translations of this era were superior to earlier ones, since the new Abbasid scientific tradition required better and better translations, and the emphasis was frequently put on incorporating new ideas to the ancient works being translated. By the second half of the ninth century, al-Ma'mun's Bayt al-Hikma was the greatest repository of books in the world and had become one of the greatest hubs of intellectual activity during the Medieval era, attracting the most brilliant Arab and Persian minds.
Destruction by the Mongol army
thumb|250x250px|[[Hulagu Khan's siege of Baghdad (1258)]]
On February 13, 1258, the Mongols entered the city of the caliphs, starting a full week of pillage and destruction. Khwaja Muhammad Habeebullah Ansari, prominent scholar from Herat, an advisor of Caliph Al-Musta'sim and his son Ahmad, commander of Baghdad's cavalry and descendant of Abu Ayyub al-Ansari were killed by the pillaging Mongol forces while defending the library with his soldiers.
Along with all other libraries in Baghdad, the House of Wisdom was destroyed by Hulagu's army during the Siege of Baghdad. The books from Baghdad's libraries were thrown into the Tigris River in such quantities that the river was said to have run black with the ink from their pages. According to a 16th-century chronicle about the siege from Quṭb al-Dīn al-Nahrawālī, "So many books were thrown into the Eufrates River that they formed a bridge that would support a man on horseback." According to historian Michal Biran, this quote was a literary trope associated with the siege of Baghdad and magnifying Mongol barbarity. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi rescued about 400,000 manuscripts, which he took to Maragheh before the siege.
Many of the books were also torn apart by pillagers so that the leather covers could be made into sandals.
Main activities
The House of Wisdom included a society of scientists and academics, a translation department, and a library that preserved the knowledge acquired by the Abbasids over the centuries. The House of Wisdom was known for being a space for scholarly growth and contribution which during the time greatly contributed to the Translation Movement.
The Translation Movement started in this House of Wisdom and lasted for over two centuries. Over a century and a half, primarily Middle Eastern Oriental Syriac Christian scholars translated all scientific and philosophic Greek texts into Arabic language in the House of Wisdom. The translation movement at the House of Wisdom was inaugurated with the translation of Aristotle's Topics. By the time of al-Ma'mun, translators had moved beyond Greek astrological texts, and Greek works were already in their third translations. In his book, al-Jāḥiẓ argued that animals like dogs, foxes, and wolves must have descended from a common ancestor because they shared similar characteristics and features such as four legs, fur, tail, and so on.
Mūsā ibn Shākir was an astrologer and a friend of Caliph Harun al-Rashid's son, al-Ma'mun. His sons, collectively known as the Banū Mūsā (Sons of Moses), also contributed with their extensive knowledge of mathematics and astrology. When their father died, al-Ma'mun became their guardian. Between 813 and 833, the three brothers were successful in their works in science, engineering, and patronage. Abū Jaʿfar, Muḥammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (before 803 – February 873), Abū al‐Qāsim, Aḥmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (d. 9th century) and al-Ḥasan ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (d. 9th century) are widely known for their Book of Ingenious Devices, which describes about one hundred devices and how to use them. Among these was "The Instrument that Plays by Itself", the earliest example of a programmable machine, as well as the Book on Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures. Mohammad Musa and his brothers Ahmad and Hasan contributed to Baghdad's astronomical observatories under the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun, in addition to House of Wisdom research. Having shown much potential, the brothers were enrolled in the library and translation center of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. They began translating ancient Greek into Arabic after quickly mastering the language, as well as paying large sums to obtain manuscripts from the Byzantine Empire for translation. They also made many original contributions to astronomy and physics. Mohammad Musa might have been the first person in history to point to the universality of the laws of physics.
In medicine, Hunayn wrote an important treatise on ophthalmology. Other scholars also wrote on smallpox, infections and surgery. Note that these works would later become standard textbooks of medicine during the European Renaissance.
Under al-Ma'mun's leadership science saw for the first time wide-ranging research projects involving large groups of scholars. In order to check Ptolemy's observations, the caliph ordered the construction of the first astronomical observatory in Baghdad (see Observatories section below). The data provided by Ptolemy was meticulously checked and revised by a highly capable group of geographers, mathematicians and astronomers.
Astronomical observatories
The creation of the first astronomical observatory in the Islamic world was ordered by Caliph al-Ma'mun in 828 in Baghdad. The construction was directed by scholars from the House of Wisdom: senior astronomer Yahya ibn abi Mansur and the younger Sanad ibn Ali al-Alyahudi. It was located in al-Shammasiyya and was called Maumtahan Observatory. After the first round of observations of Sun, Moon and the planets, a second observatory on Mount Qasioun, near Damascus, was constructed. The results of this endeavor were compiled in a work known as al-Zij al-Mumtahan, which translates as "The Verified Tables".
Dispute theory of Dimitri Gutas
Yale University Arabist Dimitri Gutas disputes the existence of the House of Wisdom as well as its form and function. He posits in his 1998 book that "House of Wisdom" is a translation error from Khizanat al-Hikma, which he asserts simply means a storehouse, and that there are few sources from the era during the Abbasid Era that mention the House of Wisdom by the name Bayt al-Hikma. There is also no proof that the Sultan ever held open debates among scholars in the library since that would not have been socially acceptable. Once the Abbasids took over they most likely continued this tradition with the added goal of pursuing both astrology and astronomy.
- Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (786–886) — leading Persian astrologist in the Abbasid court who translated the works of Aristotle.
- Averroes (1126–1198) — born in Islamic Iberia (modern day Spain), he was a Muslim philosopher who was famous for his commentary on Aristotle.
- Avicenna (980–1037) — Persian philosopher and physician famous for writing The Canon of Medicine, the prevailing medical text in the Islamic World and Europe until the 19th century.
- Yusuf al-Khuri (d. 912) — mathematician and astronomer who was hired as a translator by Banu Musa brothers.
- Qusta ibn Luqa (820–912) — mathematician and physician who translated Greek texts into Arabic.
- Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus (870–940) — Christian physician, scientist and translator.
- Yahya ibn al-Batriq (796–806) — Christian astronomer and translator.
- Yahya ibn Adi (893–974) — Syriac Orthodox Christian philosopher, theologian and translator.
- Sind ibn Ali (d. 864) — astronomer who translated and reworked Zij al-Sindhind.
- Al-Jahiz (781–861) — author and biologist known for Kitāb al-Hayawān and numerous literary works.
- Ismail al-Jazari (1136–1206) — physicist and engineer who is best known for his work in writing The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206.
- Omar Khayyam (1048–1131) — Persian poet, mathematician, and astronomer most famous for his solution of cubic equations.
Other "Houses of Wisdom"
A major contribution from the House of Wisdom in Baghdad is the influence it had on other libraries in the Islamic world. It has been recognised as a factor that connected many different people and empires because of its educational and research components. The House of Wisdom has been accredited and respected throughout Islamic history and was the model for many libraries during and following its time of function. A large number of libraries emerged during and after this time and it was evident that these libraries were based on the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. These libraries had the intention of reproducing the advantageous and beneficial characteristics that are known throughout the world because of the House of Wisdom.
Some other places have also been called House of Wisdom, which should not be confused with Baghdad's Bayt al-Hikma:
- In Cairo, Dar al-Hikmah, the "House of Wisdom", was another name of the House of Knowledge, founded by the Fatimid Caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in 1004.
- The House of Wisdom دارالحکمة س, Tehran, Iran, established in 2017 by Alireza Mohammadi.
- The House of Wisdom, Fez, Morocco, established in 2018 by Cardinal Barbarin and Khal Torabully.
- The library of Jamia Faridia in Islamabad, Pakistan, is called 'Bayt al-Ḥikmah'.
See also
- Round city of Baghdad
- Islamic Golden Age
- Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world
- Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
- Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world
- Art in the medieval Islamic world
- Brethren of Purity
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
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