Homosexuality in Japan

thumb|[[Kitagawa Utamaro, "Client Lubricating a Prostitute" (while another peers through), late-eighteenth-century print, F. M. Bertholet Collection]]

Records of men who have sex with men in Japan date back to ancient times. Western scholars have identified these as evidence of homosexuality in Japan. Though these relations had existed in Japan for millennia, they became most apparent to scholars during the Tokugawa (or Edo) period. Historical practices identified by scholars as homosexual include , and .

The Japanese term is the Japanese reading of the same characters in Chinese, which literally mean "male colors". The character () has the added meaning of "lust" in both China and Japan. This term was widely used to refer to some kind of male-to-male sex in a pre-modern era of Japan. The term is also used, especially in older works.

Modern terms for homosexuals include , , , or , , / and .

Pre-Meiji Japan

Historically, the Shinto religion "had no special code of morals and seems to have regarded sex as a natural phenomenon to be enjoyed with few inhibitions." While Shinto beliefs are diverse, Japanese Shintoism historically did not condemn homosexuality, unlike bestiality and incest. Due to the Chinese influence of Confucianism and Buddhism, homosexuality was socially discouraged.

Nevertheless, references do exist, and they become more numerous in the Heian period, roughly in the 11th century. For example, in The Tale of Genji, written in the early 11th century, men are frequently moved by the beauty of youths. At the conclusion of Chapter 2, the hero, having failed to win over a woman he desires, settles for her younger brother: "Ah well then," His Lordship sighed, as he brought him down to lie beside him, "at least you will not desert me." The lad was most delighted at finding himself embraced by one so youthful, charming, and distinguished. His Lordship, it is said, was likewise pleased at the warmth of this fraternal company, juding him to be far preferable to his ice-cold sister." The Tale of Genji is a novel, but there are several Heian-era diaries that contain references to homosexual acts and practices. Some of these contain references to Emperors involved in homosexual relationships with "handsome boys retained for sexual purposes".

Monastic homosexuality

thumb|250px|Old Buddhist, by [[Utagawa Kuniyoshi. Note the exposed bare feet of the boy indicating the sexual demeanor while the brocade Kesa robe indicates the wealthy status of cleric.]]

Nanshoku relationships inside Buddhist monasteries were typically pederastic: an age-structured relationship where the younger partner is not considered an adult. The older partner, or , would be a monk, priest or abbot, while the younger partner was assumed to be an , who would be a prepubescent or adolescent boy; the relationship would be dissolved once the boy reached adulthood (or left the monastery). Both parties were encouraged to treat the relationship seriously and conduct the affair honorably, and the nenja might be required to write a formal vow of fidelity. Outside of the monasteries, monks were considered to have a particular predilection for male prostitutes, which was the subject of much ribald humor.

There is no evidence so far of religious opposition to homosexuality within Japan in non-Buddhist traditions. Tokugawa commentators felt free to illustrate kami engaging in anal sex with each other. During the Tokugawa period, some of the Shinto gods, especially Hachiman, Myoshin, Shinmei and Tenjin, "came to be seen as guardian deities of nanshoku" (male–male love). Tokugawa-era writer Ihara Saikaku joked that since there are no women for the first three generations in the genealogy of the gods found in the Nihon Shoki, the gods must have enjoyed homosexual relationships—which Saikaku argued was the real origin of nanshoku. Nonetheless, during the Edo period, male-female relationships were highly valued as it ensured propagation of offspring and social status.

Samurai shudō

In contrast to the norms in religious circles, in the warrior (samurai) class it was customary for a boy in the wakashū age category to undergo training in the martial arts by apprenticing to a more experienced adult man. According to Furukawa, the relationship was based on the model of a typically older nenja, paired with a typically younger chigo.

Male prostitutes and actor-prostitutes serving male clientele were originally restricted to the wakashū age category, as adult men were not perceived as desirable or socially acceptable sexual partners for other men. During the 17th century, these men (or their employers) sought to maintain their desirability by deferring or concealing their coming-of-age and thus extending their "non-adult" status into their twenties or even thirties; this eventually led to an alternate, status-defined shudō relationship which allowed clients to hire "boys" who were, in reality, older than themselves. This evolution was hastened by mid-17th-century bans on the depiction of the wakashū<nowiki/>'s long forelocks, their most salient age marker, in kabuki plays; intended to efface the sexual appeal of the young actors and thus reduce violent competition for their favors, this restriction eventually had the unintended effect of decoupling male sexual desirability from actual age, so long as a suitably "youthful" appearance could be maintained.

Nanshoku was not considered incompatible with heterosexuality; Edo books of erotic prints dedicated to nanshoku often presented erotic images of both young women (concubines, mekake, or prostitutes, jōrō) as well as attractive adolescent boys (wakashū) and cross-dressing youths (onnagata). Indeed, several works printed in Edo suggest that the most "enviable" situation would be to have both many jōrō and many wakashū (it has been noted, however, that such an erotic ideal appears only in works printed in Edo — nanshoku books printed in Kamigata do not depict such bisexual romps). Women were also considered to be particularly attracted to both wakashū and onnagata, and it was assumed that many of these young men would reciprocate that interest. It was intended to be a societal reflection of all the different ways men in Tokugawa society loved other men.

The most common narrative of male to male sex and/or love was what we would now consider a "bisexual" experience: the "connoisseur of boys" or shojin-zuki. This term was applied not simply to men who engaged in "bisexual" behavior, but most often to men who engaged sexually and/or romantically with boys often, but not exclusively.

There were wakashū who would now be considered "homosexual", wakashū who would now be considered "bisexual", and wakashū who would now be considered "heterosexual", as well as many who could not be easily sorted into these categories.

Wakashū who felt this way could simply transition to being the "man" partner to a "boy", or, in some circumstances (of varying social acceptability), continue his life in the sociosexual role of "boy".

In the realm of male kabuki (as opposed to "boy" kabuki), Saikaku writes,<blockquote>now, since everyone wore the hairstyle of adult men, it was still possible at age 34 or 35 for youthful-looking actors to get under a man's robe...If skill is what the audience is looking for, there should be no problem in having a 70 year old perform as a youth in long sleeved robes. So long as he can continue to find patrons willing to spend the night with him, he can then enter the new year without pawning his belongings.</blockquote>The protagonist of Saikaku's An Amorous Man hires the services of a "boy" who turns out to be ten years his senior, and finds himself disappointed. Despite the animosity, nanshoku continued, specifically the samurai version of nanshoku, and it became the dominant expression of homosexuality during the Meiji period.

The only time homosexual sodomy (anal sex) has been banned in Japan was for eight years in 1872–1880 due to western influence.

Ming dynasty China banned homosexual sodomy (anal sex) in the Ming Code since the Jiajing emperor's reign and continued into the Qing dynasty until 1907, when western influence led to the law being repealed. The Chinese mocked and insulted Puyi and the Japanese as homosexuals and presented it as proof of their perversion and being uncivilized. During World War II, straight Japanese soldiers were documented forcing gay people into sexual slavery in lands occupied by Japan, and forcibly turning some gay natives into "comfort women" and prisoners.

Homosexuality in modern Japan

Despite the recent trends that suggest a new level of tolerance, as well as open scenes in more cosmopolitan cities (such as Tokyo and Osaka), Japanese gay men and lesbian women often conceal their sexuality, with many even marrying persons of the opposite sex.

Politics and law

Japan has no laws against homosexual activity and has some legal protections for gay individuals. While civil rights laws do not extend to protection from discrimination based on sexual orientation, some governments have enacted such laws. The government of Tokyo has passed laws that ban discrimination in employment based on sexual identity.

Japan's society and government are predominantly conservative. Most political parties in Japan have formal positions in favor or against LGBT rights in their party's platform or manifesto. The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has indicated opposition to legalizing same-sex marriage, whereas the Constitutional Democratic Party (CDP), the Japanese Communist Party (JCP), the Japan Innovation Party, and the Social Democratic Party have indicated support for legalization. In a 2023 survey, Pew Research Center estimated that nearly 70% of Japanese people support same-sex marriage, the highest percentage of acceptance out of the Asian countries surveyed.

Some political figures are beginning to speak publicly about they themselves being gay. Kanako Otsuji, an assemblywoman from Osaka, came out as a lesbian in 2005. She became the first elected member of the House of Councillors and of the Diet in 2013 and 2015 respectively to do so. Taiga Ishikawa was elected in 2019, becoming the first openly gay man to sit in the Diet. He was out also during his time previously as a ward councillor for Nakano.

The current Constitution of Japan, which was written during American occupation, defines marriage as exclusively between a man and a woman. In an unconventional effort to circumvent marriage restrictions, some gay couples have resorted to using the adult adoption system, which is known as futsu, as an alternate means of becoming a family. Similar partnerships are available in Setagaya District (Tokyo), Sapporo (Hokkaido), Takarazuka (Hyogo), and over 20 other localities, as well as one prefecture (Ibaraki).

Popular culture

Mass media

A number of artists, nearly all male, have begun to speak publicly about being gay, appearing on various talk shows and other programs, their celebrity often focused on their sexuality; twin pop-culture critics Piko and Osugi are an example. Akihiro Miwa, a drag queen and former lover of author Yukio Mishima, is the television advertisement spokesperson for many Japanese companies ranging from beauty to financial products.

thumb|right|[[Masaki Sumitani]]

Some entertainers have used stereotypical references to homosexuality to increase their profile. Masaki Sumitani a.k.a. Hard Gay (HG), a comedian, shot to fame after he began to appear in public wearing a leather harness, hot pants, and cap. His outfit, name, and trademark pelvis thrusting and squeals earned him the adoration of fans and the scorn of many in the Japanese gay community.

After 2010 the situation for people belonging to the LGBT community changed in many ways. They began to be viewed as a market for mainstream Japanese businesses and businesses started to promote LGBT rights protection in their self-marketing. Since then many companies developed environments that protect LGBT rights to attract diverse new employees and increase their brand value in the global market.

In April 2014, Hiromi, a fashion model, came out publicly as a lesbian.

A greater number of gay characters have also begun appearing (with positive portrayals) on Japanese television, such as the highly successful TV series Hana-Kimi and Last Friends. Boys' Love drama Ossan's Love aired first in 2016 as a standalone TV movie and was expanded to a TV series in 2018. The programme was so successful that a movie sequel was released the following year entitled Ossan's Love: LOVE or DEAD. In 2019 male same-sex relationships became further visible with the popular adapted drama What Did You Eat Yesterday?. Sailor Moon also brought homosexuals into the forefront with characters Haruka Ten'oh and Michiru Kaiou, two female senshi in a committed same sex relationship.

is a Japanese reality dating show on Netflix. It is the nation's first same-sex dating program. It premiered on July 9, 2024.

Media

The subscription-based gay magazine Adonis was published from 1952 to 1962.

In 1975 twelve women became the first group of women in Japan to publicly identify as lesbians, publishing one issue of a magazine called Subarashi Onna (Wonderful Women).

In the early 1990s many forms of media started to show interest in gay culture and especially the experiences of gay men. They focused on gay men in relationships with heterosexual women. Examples of media being produced in this time are the movies: Okoge (Fag Hag, 1992), Kira kira hikaru (Twinkle, 1992), the drama series Dōsokai (Class Reunion, 1993), and the movie adaptation of Matsu’ura Rieko's 1987 lesbian-themed novel Nachuraru ūman (Natural Women,1994). Moreover, new gay magazines established themselves such as Badī (Buddy, 1993–2019) and G-men (1995–2016) and forged new ways in which the gay community could represent and build a community. In 1987 the first commercial publication by and for lesbian women Onna o aisuru onnatachi no monogatari (Stories of Women Who Love Women) was published.

Gei-comi ("gay-comics") are gay-romance themed comics aimed at gay men. While yaoi comics often assign one partner as a "uke", or feminized receiver, gei-comi generally depict both partners as masculine and in an equal relationship. Another common term for this genre is bara, stemming from the name of the first publication of this genre to gain popularity in Japan, Barazoku. Yaoi works are massive in number with much of the media created by women usually for female audiences. In the west, it has quickly caught on as one of the most sought-after forms of pornography. There is certainly no disparity between yaoi as a pornographic theme, vs Yuri.

Lesbian-romance themed anime and manga is known as yuri (which means "lily"). It is used to describe female-female relationships in material and is typically marketed towards straight people, homosexuals in general, or lesbians despite significant stylistic and thematic differences between works aimed at the different audiences. Another word that has become popular in Japan as an equivalent term to Yuri is "GL" (short for "Girls' Love" in opposite to "Boys' Love"). There are a variety of yuri titles (or titles that integrate yuri content) aimed at women, such as Revolutionary Girl Utena, Oniisama e..., Maria-sama ga Miteru, some aspects of Sailor Moon (most notably Haruka and Michiru), Strawberry Shake Sweet, Love My Life, etc.; and there are a variety of yuri titles of anime such as Kannazuki no Miko, Strawberry Panic!, Simoun, and My-Hime. Comic Yuri Hime is a long-time running manga magazine in Japan that focuses solely on yuri stories, which gained merges from its other subsidiary comics and currently runs as the only Yuri Hime named magazine. Other magazines and anthologies of Yuri that have emerged throughout the early 21st century are Mebae, Hirari, and Tsubomi (the latter two ceased publication before 2014).

Literature on homosexuality has been developed as well. Notable works include Hymn by Kenji Nakagami and Happy Birthday by . Famous foreign homosexual novels, such as The Boys on the Rock by John Fox and A Boy's Own Story by Edmund White were translated. In 1996, A Bath Towel by was nominated as a candidate for the 115th Akutagawa Prize and praised by Teru Miyamoto and Shintaro Ishihara. Other works with homosexual characters include Sputnik Sweetheart by Haruki Murakami, "Twinkle Twinkle" by Kaori Ekuni and so on.

2021 court ruling

In March 2021, the Sapporo District Court of Japan declared and announced that the 1984 law banning same-sex marriage is unconstitutional. In June 2022, the Osaka District Court released a ruling which found the ban unconstitutional.

Female homosexual relationships in pre modern Japan

thumb|A painting depicting two women engaging in sex. One of the women uses a mask of [[Tengu.]]In Japan, female homosexual relationships (lesbian) were less recorded than that of their male counterparts. And while there was a term for male/male sex, there was no such term for lesbian sex.

However evidence does exist dating back to at least the Kamakura period. One of these is a book known as The Princess in Search of Herself (Waga mi ni tadoru himegimi). In this, the physical relationships between women is mentioned explicitly, and a lady-in-waiting to the saiō of Ise Shrine becomes jealous after the saiō, her lover, becomes involved with another woman.

In the Kojiki, Amaterasu is lured out of the heavenly rock cave after Ame-no-Uzume performs a "bawdy dance" in which Ame-no-Uzume strips herself revealing her vagina and breasts, and the gods have much celebration which entices her to leave the cave as it piques her interests. This may be a more ambiguous mention of female same sex acts.

Aside from that, dildos have been used since at least the Nara period, though it's unclear if these were for lesbian sex or simply masturbation.

Art featuring lesbian sex was made also, mostly during the Edo period.

References

External links

"Queer Japan", special issue of Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context
"Enduring Voices: Fushimi Noriaki and Kakefuda Hiroko's Continuing Relevance to Japanese Lesbian and Gay Studies and Activism", by Katsuhiko Suganuma
"Telling Her Story: Narrating a Japanese Lesbian Community", by James Welker
"Japan (GAYCATION Episode 1)." Viceland. February 24, 2016.
Bibliography of Gay and Lesbian History
Resource and Support group for LGBT foreigners in Japan "Stonewall AJET"