Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multiracial, multicultural, multi-religious, and multilingual country. The most spoken language is Nepali followed by several other ethnic languages.

The lands of modern-day Nepal are recognized as the birthplace of Buddhism and the Buddha, which eventually spread into India and Sri Lanka, across East and Southeast Asia, and as far west as Kalmykia in Russia. The modern day Kingdom of Nepal was established in 1768 and started a campaign of unifying what would form the modern territories of Nepal. Some former territories had been lost due to the Anglo-Nepalese War and the Sino-Nepalese War. In the Sino-Nepalese war, the conflict ended with both victories and losses with the kingdom ultimately accepting tributary status with the Qing dynasty of China from 1792 to 1865. The Anglo-Nepalese War ended in British victory and resulted in the ceding some Nepalese territory in the Treaty of Sugauli. In a historical vote for the election of the constituent assembly, the Nepalese parliament voted to abolish the monarchy in June 2006. Nepal became a federal republic on 15 jestha 2065 according to the Nepali Bikram Sambat calender (2008 AD) and was formally renamed the 'Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal' ending the 200-year-old reign of the Shah monarchs. From Bhadra 23 and 24 2082 BS (8-9 Sep 2025) (, a widespread riot was caused by economic corruption and the banning of social media.

Toponymy

Nepal's origin remains a mystery despite written records dating back to the fifth century A.D. Classical Indian sources mention Nepal, and Nepali stories delve into mythology, religion, and culture rather than providing a clear historical account.

The derivation of the word Nepal is a subject of various theories:

  • Most inhabitants of northern Nepal came from Tibet, where they herded sheep and produced wool. In Tibetan, ne means "wool" and pal means "house". Thus, Nepal is "house of wool".
  • Newar people in the Kathmandu valley named their homeland Nepal, derived from "Nepa," meaning "country of the middle zone," highlighting its central location in the Himalayas.

Ancient history

Prehistory

Prehistoric sites of palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic origins have been discovered in the Siwalik hills of Dang district. It is possible that the Dravidian people whose history predates the onset of the Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent (around 3300 BCE) inhabited the area before the arrival of other ethnic groups like the Tibeto-Burmans and long before Indo-Aryans from across the border. The Tibeto-Burman peoples were likely the earliest significant settlers in Nepal, especially in the highlands and hilly regions. The Indo-Aryans arrived later, contributing significantly to the cultural and linguistic framework of Nepal, especially in the Kathmandu Valley and lowlands. The Dravidian presence in Nepal is minimal, as they primarily settled in the southern parts of India after Indo-Aryan expansion pushed them southward. Tharus who were Tibeto-Burmans mixed heavily with Indigenous tibes in the southern regions, are natives of the central Madhesh Province and Terai region of Nepal. The first documented tribes in Nepal are the Kirat people in the record of Kirat Kings from Kirata Kingdom from 800 BCE, which shows Kirats were recorded in Nepal last 2000 to 2500 years, with an extensive dominion, possibly reaching at one time to the delta of the Ganges. Other ethnic groups of Indo-Aryan origin later migrated to southern part of Nepal from Indo-Gangetic Plain of northern India.

Emperor Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several significant structures in Nepal. These include the Ramagrama Stupa, Gotihawa Pillar of Ashoka, Nigali-Sagar Ashoka Pillar inscription, and the Lumbini pillar inscription of Ashoka. The Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien (337 CE – c. 422 CE) and Xuanzang (602–664 CE) describe the Kanakamuni Stupa and the Asoka Pillar of currently Nepal region in their travel accounts. Xuanzang speaks of a lion capital atop the pillar, now lost. A base of a Pillar of Ashoka has been discovered at Gotihawa, a few miles from Nigali Sagar, and it has been suggested that it is the original base of the Nigalar Sagar pillar fragments. In 249 BCE, Emperor Asoka founded Lalitapatan city of Nepal.

Legends and ancient times

Although very little is known about the early history of Nepal, legends and documented references reach far back to the 30th century BCE. Also, the presence of historical sites such as the Valmiki ashram, indicates the presence of Sanatana (ancient) Hindu culture in parts of Nepal at that period.

According to legendary accounts, the early rulers of Nepal were the Gopālavaṃśi (Gopal Vansha) or "cowherd dynasty", who presumably ruled for about five centuries. They are said to have been followed by the Mahiṣapālavaṃśa or "buffalo-herder dynasty", established by a Yadav named Bhul Singh.

The Shakya clan formed an independent oligarchic republican state known as the Śākya Gaṇarājya during the late Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 500 BCE) and the later so-called second urbanisation period (c. 600 – c. 200 BCE). Its capital was Kapilavastu, which may have been located in present-day Tilaurakot, Nepal. Gautama Buddha (c. 6th to 4th centuries BCE), whose teachings became the foundation of Buddhism, was the best-known Shakya.

He was known in his lifetime as "Siddhartha Gautama" and "Shakyamuni" (Sage of the Shakyas). He was the son of Śuddhodana, the elected leader of the Śākya Gaṇarājya.

Kirat dynasty

The context of Kirat Dynasty ruling in Nepal before Licchavi dynasty and after Mahispal (Ahir) dynasty are depicted in different manuscripts. Kirat dynasty was the longest ruling dynasty in Nepalese history, ruling from the 800 BCE–300 CE for about 1,225 years. They ruled kathmandu valley before delineating the area between the Sun Koshi (Pronounced exactly as written) and Tama Koshi (Tāmā Koshi) rivers as their native land, the list of Kirati kings is also given in the Gopal genealogy. The Mahisapala dynasty was a dynasty established by Abhira that ruled the Kathmandu Valley. They took control of Nepal after replacing the Gopala dynasty. Three kings of Mahisapala dynasty ruled the valley before they were overthrown by the Kirats. They were also known as Mahispalbanshi. By defeating the last king of the Avir dynasty Bhuwansingh in a battle, Kirati King Yalung or Yalambar had taken the regime of the valley under his control. In Hindu mythological perspective, this event is believed to have taken place in the final phase of Dvapara Yuga or initial phase of Kali Yuga or around the 6th century BCE. Descriptions of 32, 28 and 29 Kirati kings are found according to the Gopal genealogy, language-genealogy and Wright genealogy respectively. By means of the notices contained in the classics of the East and West, the Kiranti people were living in their present whereabouts for the last 2000 to 2500 years, with an extensive dominion, possibly reaching at one time to the delta of the Ganges.]]

During the time of the Gupta Empire, the Indian emperor Samudragupta recorded Nepal as a "frontier kingdom" which paid an annual tribute. This was recorded by Samudragupta's Allahabad Pillar inscription, which states the following in lines 22–23.