The history of Hawaii began with the migration and arrival of people to the Hawaiian Islands by Polynesian people between 940 and 1200 AD.

The first recorded and sustained contact with Europeans occurred by chance when British explorer James Cook sighted the islands in January 1778 during his third voyage of exploration. Aided by European military technology, Kamehameha I conquered and unified the islands for the first time, establishing the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1795. The kingdom became prosperous and important for its agriculture and strategic location in the Pacific.

American immigration, led by Protestant missionaries, and Native Hawaiian emigration, mostly on whaling ships but also in high numbers as indentured servants and as forced labor, began almost immediately after Cook's arrival. The Hawaiian monarchy encouraged this multi-ethnic society, initially establishing a constitutional monarchy in 1840 that promised equal voting rights regardless of race, gender, or wealth.

The population of Native Hawaiians declined precipitously from an unknown number prior to 1778 (estimated to be around 300,000). It fell to around 142,000 in the 1820s based on a census conducted by American missionaries, 82,203 in the 1850 Hawaiian Kingdom census, 40,622 in the final Hawaiian Kingdom census of 1890, 39,504 in the sole census by the Republic of Hawaii in 1896, and 37,656 in the first census conducted by the United States in 1900. Thereafter the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii increased with every census, reaching 680,442 in 2020 (including people of mixed heritage).

In 1893 Queen Liliʻuokalani was illegally deposed and placed under house arrest by businessmen (who included members of the Dole family) with help from the U.S. Marines. The Republic of Hawaii governed for a short time until Hawaii was annexed by the United States in 1898 as the Territory of Hawaii. In 1959, the islands became the 50th American state.

Ancient Hawaii

Polynesian migration and arrival

thumb|upright=1.35|Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific

The date of the first arrival of people is a continuing debate. Kirch's textbooks on Hawaiian archeology date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300, although his more recent estimates are as late as 600. Other theories suggest dates as late as 700 to 800.

The history of the ancient Polynesians was passed down through genealogy chants recited at formal and family functions. The high chiefs' genealogy traced back to the period believed to be inhabited only by gods. The pua aliʻi ("flower of royalty") were considered to be living gods.

Tahitian priest Paʻao is said to have brought a new order around 1200. It included laws and a social structure that separated the people into classes. The aliʻi nui was the king, with his ʻaha kuhina just below them. The aliʻi were the royal nobles with the kahuna (high priest) below them, the makaʻāinana (commoners) next with the kauā as the lowest class.

The rulers (noho aliʻi o ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻAina) were independent rulers of geographic areas. Their genealogy traces to Hānalaʻanui and others. The aliʻi nui were responsible for making sure that people observed a strict kapu (code of conduct). The system governed many aspects of Hawaiian social order, fishing rights and even where women could eat.

Regular voyages occurred between Tahiti and Hawaii for some time, but stopped around 1300 AD. Hawaii was thus isolated from the rest of the world for several centuries, until 1778 when Captain Cook made the first documented contact between Hawaii and European explorers.

The group of islands did not have a single name, and each island was ruled separately. Kamehameha I, as ruler of the island of Hawaii, imposed the name Hawaiʻi on the whole island group when he unified them as the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. However, the dominant religion as in many other Polynesian societies, was the kapu/taboo religion. It had a theology, ritual, and a code of conduct. It included many gods and heroes that people worshiped in different ways. One such god is Iolani, the god of alii. noted the following groups:thumb|A depiction of a royal [[heiau (Hawaiian temple) at Kealakekua Bay]]

  • four major gods (ka hā) – Kū, Kāne, Lono, Kanaloa
  • forty male gods or aspects of Kāne (ke kanahā)
  • four hundred gods and goddesses (ka lau)
  • a multitude of gods and goddesses (ke kini akua)
  • spirits (na unihipili)
  • guardians (na aumākua)

Another breakdown consists of three major groups:

  • four gods, or akua: Kū, Kāne, Lono, Kanaloa
  • many lesser gods, or kupua, each associated with certain professions
  • guardian spirits, aumakua, associated with particular families

Rulers of Hawaii island

Līloa

Līloa was a legendary ruler of the island of Hawaii in the late 15th century. His royal compound was in Waipiʻo Valley. His line traces to Hawaiian creation.

Līloa had two sons; his firstborn Hākau from his wife/aunt Pinea, (his mother's sister), and his second son, ʻUmi a Līloa from his lesser wife, Akahi a Kuleana. Upon his death, Hākau became ruler and delegated religious authority to ʻUmi.

Līloa was the first son of Kiha nui lulu moku who descended from Hāna laʻa nui. Līloa's mother, Waioloa, his grandmother, Neʻula and great-grandmother, Laʻa kapu were of the ʻEwa aliʻi lines of Oahu. Līloa's father ruled Hawaii as aliʻi nui and upon his death elevated Līloa. Kiha had had four other sons, Kaunuamoa, Makaoku, Kepailiula and Hoolana, whose descendants are the Kaiakea family of Molokai, distant relatives of Abraham Fornander's daughter.

Hākau

Just before his death, Līloa elevated Hākau as Chief, telling Umi that he was to serve as his "man" (Prime Minister) and that each was to respect the other and should either have issue with the other it would be for them to decide. At first a decent king, Hākau soon became brutal. To avoid his brother's anger, 'Umi exiled himself to another district.

Hākau refused to help Nunu and Ka-hohe, his father's two favorites, ailing Kahuna who had requested food. This was considered highly insulting. The two were of Lono's priestly class. They resented their treatment and plotted to see the kingdom in someone else's hand. Hākau did not believe the priests to have any power and showed them no respect as 'Umi was the spiritual authority. Through a messenger of Kaoleioku, of Waipunalei, the high-priest of the temple of Manini, the two priests contacted Umi's court at Koholalele. The two priests traveled to Waipunalei where they supported Umi's revolt. and was considered a just ruler, religious and the first to unite most of the Hawaii Island. The legend of ʻUmi-a-Līloa is one of Hawaii's most popular hero sagas.

ʻUmi's wife was Princess Piʻikea, daughter of Piʻilani. They had one son, Kumalae and one daughter, Aihākōkō.

Līloa told Akahi that, if she were to have a male child, she should present the boy to him along with royal tokens he gave her as gifts, to prove her boy was the son of the king. Akahi hid the tokens from her husband and later gave birth to a son. At the age of 15 or 16, his stepfather was punishing the boy when his mother intervened and told the man not to touch him because the boy was his lord and chief. She uncovered the tokens to present to her husband to prove the high treason he would have committed. Akahi gave her son the royal malo and lei niho palaoa given to her by 'Umi's biological father. Only high chiefs wore these items. She sent 'Umi to Waipiʻo Valley to present himself to the king as his son.

Līloa's palace was guarded and attended by several Kahuna. The entire enclosure was sacred. Entering without permission carried the death penalty. 'Umi entered the enclosure with attendants afraid to stop someone wearing the royal insignia and walked straight to Līloa's sleeping quarters, waking him there. When Līloa asked who he was, he said "It is I, 'Umi your son". He then placed tokens at his father's feet and Līloa proclaimed him to be his son. After learning of 'Umi, Hākau became upset. Līloa assured his first born that he would be king after his death and that his brother would serve him. 'Umi was brought to court on an equal footing with Hākau. 'Umi found great favor from his father, increasing Hākau's dislike.

In exile, 'Umi took wives and began building forces and followers. Chiefs began to see him as of the highest chiefly nature from signs they observed. He gave food to people and became known for caring for all.

After Hākau's death the other aliʻi claimed their districts for themselves. 'Umi took the advice of the two priests by marrying many women of high noble rank, including his half sister Kapukini and the daughter of the ruler of Hilo, where he had been given sanctuary during Hākau's reign. Eventually 'Umi conquered the entire island. These relationships were accepted as part of Hawaiian culture. Such sexual relationships may have begun as teenagers and continued thereafter, even though they also had heterosexual partners. Cook and his associates provided extensive eyewitness accounts and analyses of such young men. These Aikane men were connected to chiefs whose functions were sexual, social, and political. The Hawaiian aikāne relationship was a part of Hawaiian noble life, including that of Kamehameha I. Some myths refer to women's desires and therefore some women may have been involved in aikāne relationships. Līloa originated this practice among the alii, which was then copied by the other classes. Warriors engaged in the practice. In many cases, the men involved felt it an honor and responsibility to honor their hana lawelawe.

Land division system

Land was divided in accord with the wishes of the Aliʻi Nui. The system had four hierarchical levels:

  • mokupuni (island)
  • moku (subdivision of an island)
  • ahupuaʻa (subdivision of moku)
  • ʻili (two or three per ahupuaʻa, but Kahoʻolawe for example had eight)

Some oral history relates that ʻUmi a Līloa created the ahupuaʻa system.

thumb|The Religion, Hawaiian Islands, Northern Polynesia diorama in the Oceania exhibit at the [[Milwaukee Public Museum]]

Each ahupuaʻa included a lowland mala and upland forested region. The divisions typically went from the ridge top to the coast, often following the boundary of a stream. Ahupuaʻa varied in size depending on the economic means of the location and political divisions of the area. The system exploited the fact that communities were organized along stream systems. The community governance system of Kānāwai is attributed specifically to shared water usage.

Each ahupuaʻa was divided into ʻili that in turn were divided into kuleana, individual plots of land that were cultivated by commoners who paid taxes to the land overseer each week. These taxes went to support the chief. Possible reasons for this radial division include:

  • travel: in many areas, it is easier to travel up- and downstream than from valley to valley.
  • economy: having all climate and economic exploitation zones in each land division ensured that each could be self-sufficient for much of its needs.

"As the native Hawaiians used the resources within their ahupuaʻa, they practiced aloha (respect), laulima (cooperation) and malama (stewardship), which resulted in a desirable pono (balance)". The Hawaiians believed that the land, the sea, the clouds and all of nature were interconnected, which is why they used these resources to reach the desired balance in life. Sustainability was maintained by the konohiki and kahuna (priests who restricted the fishing of certain species during specific seasons). They also regulated the gathering of plants. along with niu (coconuts), ʻulu (breadfruit), maiʻa (bananas) and ko (sugarcane). The kukui tree (Aleurites moluccanus) was sometimes used as shade to protect mala. Each crop was cultivated in an area most suitable to its needs.

Hawaiians kept dogs, chickens, and pigs. They grew personal gardens at home. Water was important to Hawaiian life; it was used for fishing, bathing, drinking, and gardening, and for loko i'a (fishpond aquaculture systems). Divisions were under the control of other smaller chiefs and managed by a steward. The headman of a land division or ahupua`a is a konohiki.

Konohiki

In the Keelikolani vs Robinson court case, kononiki is defined as land agent. In the Territory vs Bishop Trust Co. LTD. case, when the agent was appointed by a chief, they were referred to as konohiki. The term also referred to a designated area of land owned privately (not by the government). A konohiki retained life tenure on the land even when discharged from the position, but a head man overseeing the same land had no such protection.

Often ali'i and konohiki are treated synonymously. However, while most konohiki were ali'i, not all ali'i were konohiki. A konohiki could also be a headman of a land division or to describe fishing rights. Kono means to entice or prompt. Hiki refers to something that can be done. They oversaw the property, managing water rights, land distribution, agricultural use and any maintenance. Konohiki also ensured that the right amounts of gifts and tribute were properly made at the right times.

As capitalism was incorporated into the kingdom, konohiki became tax collectors, landlords, and fishery wardens. Some sources speculate that sightings of, or interaction with, Hawaii must have occurred.

By 1589, Ortelius was publishing the Maris Pacifici first ever Pacific map featuring an intriguing resemblance of the Hawaiian Islands <i>"Los Bolcanes"</i> and <i>"La Farfania"</i> in the middle of the Pacific by the Tropic of Cancer.

In 1743, British Commodore George Anson captured a Spanish galleon on which he found a chart of the Pacific that depicted a group of islands at the same latitude as the Hawaiian islands but with a longitude ten degrees to the east. One of these islands is labeled La Mesa ('the Table'). This is conjectured to be Hawaii Island since this “agrees very well with the appearance of Mauna Loa ... when seen at a great distance”.

Many scholars have refuted claims of Spanish knowledge of Hawaii during this period. However, based on accounts from native Hawaiian oral tradition, Oscar Spate leaves open the possibility of one-way contact and that it is "likely that Spanish castaways reached Hawaii and survived".<section end=Pre1778 />

Arrival and death of James Cook

thumb|[[HMS Resolution (1771)|HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery. On February 14, 1779, Capt. James Cook was killed on the island of Hawaii.]]

Between 1768 and 1779, Captain James Cook led three voyages to chart unknown seas for Great Britain. While crossing the Pacific on his third voyage, he serendipitously encountered the Hawaiian Islands on January 18, 1778, the first documented contact by a European explorer. He first anchored off the coast of Kauai and met local inhabitants to trade and obtain water and food for his onward voyage. On February 2, 1778, Cook continued on to the North American continent, searching for a Northwest Passage for approximately nine months. After failing to find any passage, he decided to use the Hawaiian Islands as a base to over-winter and resupply before a second attempt the next season. His two ships first encountered the coast of Maui in November 1778, and eventually anchored in Kealakekua Bay on the west coast of Hawaii Island in mid January. Initially, the reception of the local people was respectful, friendly and accommodating. The expedition departed Kealakekua on Feb 4, but was forced to return again after a few days to make essential repairs after a storm severely damaged a mast. Relations with the local people now grew hostile and Cook was among those killed when a dispute led to violence.

After Cook's visit and the publication of several books relating his voyages, the Hawaiian Islands attracted many European and American explorers, traders, and whalers, who found the islands to be a convenient harbor and source of supplies. This began to influence the trajectory of Hawaiian history. The introduction of sexually transmitted diseases are attributed with certainty to the voyages of Cook, However, after the first visits of the Discovery and Resolution to "Mowee (Maui) and Ouwhyee (Hawaii)" and finding "that the venereal disease was not unknown to the natives," Cook himself believed "that the disease was not left at these islands by our ships."

The Inawaka-maru deserters

On January 1806, a Japanese ship named the chartered by the Kikkawa clan to deliver cargo and several Kikkawa officials ran into a freak snowstorm en route from Hiroshima to Edo (modern Tokyo) that caused her to adrift far into the Pacific; they were sighted by the American ship Tabour who rescued and handed them over to Kamehameha I while docking in Oʻahu on May 5. They stayed under the king's protection until August when they were able to procure a ship captained by Amasa Delano back on an arduous journey home to Japan. The sole survivor of this voyage home, sailor , recounted all his first-hand observations of native Hawaiian life during their stay to his daimyō Asano Narikata compiled as the , the only such record by a non-Westerner.

Kingdom of Hawaii

The Kingdom of Hawaii lasted from 1795 until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua.

Kamehameha I

thumb|upright|left|[[Kamehameha I, founder of the Kingdom of Hawaii]]

The first king to unite the Hawaiian Islands was Kamehameha I, founder of the House of Kamehameha and the Kingdom of Hawaii.

His lineage can be traced to half brothers, Kalaniʻōpuʻu and Keōua. Kalaniʻōpuʻu's father was Kalaninuiʻīamamao while Keōua's father was Kalanikeʻeaumoku, both sons of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. However, Keōua acknowledged him as his son and this relationship is recognized by official genealogies.

The date of Kamehameha I's birth is uncertain. The traditional ole chant of Keaka, wife of Alapaʻinui, indicates that Kamehameha I was born in ikuwā (winter) around November. Kamehameha was allegedly born during the passing of Halley's Comet. In Hawaiian culture a comet indicated an important birth. Samuel Kamakau, wrote, "It was during the time of the warfare among the chiefs of [the island of] Hawaii which followed the death of Keawe, chief over the whole island, that Kamehameha I was born". However, his general dating was challenged. Abraham Fornander wrote, "when Kamehameha died in 1819 he was past eighty years old. His birth would thus fall between 1736 and 1740, probably nearer the former". William De Witt Alexander listed the birth year as 1736. He was first named Paiea but took the name Kamehameha, meaning "The very lonely one" or "The one set alone".

thumb|upright|This sculpture of the god Kū-ka-ili-moku was left to [[Kamehameha I by his uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu]]

Hawaiian prophecy said that this baby would one day unite the islands. Kamehameha's uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu raised him after Keōua's death. Kalaniʻōpuʻu ruled Hawaii as had his grandfather Keawe. He had advisors and priests. When word reached the ruler that chiefs were planning to murder the boy, he told Kamehameha: