Great White Fleet

The Great White Fleet was the popular nickname for the group of United States Navy battleships that completed a journey around the globe from 16 December 1907, to 22 February 1909, by order of President Theodore Roosevelt. It consisted of 16 battleships divided into two squadrons, along with various small escorts, and earned its moniker for the stark white paint on its hulls.

The fleet's primary mission was to make friendly courtesy visits to numerous countries while displaying new U.S. naval power to the world; Roosevelt sought to demonstrate growing American military prowess and blue-water naval capabilities. Another goal was to deter a threatened war with Japan amid growing tensions around 1907. The voyage helped familiarize the 14,500 officers and sailors with the logistical and planning needs for extended fleet action far from home.

After long neglecting the Navy, Congress started generous appropriations in the 1880s, a plan set in motion initially by President Chester Arthur. Beginning with just 90 small ships, over one-third of them wooden and obsolete, the Navy quickly added new steel fighting vessels. The fleet's capital ships were already obsolete compared to the British dreadnoughts in 1907. Nevertheless, it was by far the largest and most powerful fleet that had ever circled the globe; the mission was a success at home and in every country that was visited, including in Europe (which was visited only briefly).

Background and purpose

thumb|Flagship : one of a set of commemorative postcards of the ships of the Great White Fleet

United States President Theodore Roosevelt dispatched 16 U.S. Navy battleships of the Atlantic Fleet on a worldwide voyage of circumnavigation from 16 December 1907 to 22 February 1909. This was not the first demonstration of U.S. naval power; during the Algeciras Conference in 1906, which was convened to settle a diplomatic crisis between France and Germany over the fate of Morocco, Roosevelt had ordered eight battleships to maintain a presence in the Mediterranean Sea. Since Japan had arisen as a major sea power with the 1905 annihilation of the Russian fleet at Tsushima, the deployment of the Great White Fleet was therefore intended, at least in part, to send a message to Japan that the American fleet could be deployed anywhere, even from its Atlantic ports, and would be able to defend American interests in the Philippines and the Pacific.

The most serious tensions between the United States and Japan came in 1907, leading to widespread speculation among experts that war was imminent between the two. The main cause was intense Japanese resentment against the mistreatment of Japanese Americans in California. Pulitzer prize-winning biographer Henry Pringle states that sending Great White Fleet so dramatically to Japan in 1908 was, "the direct result of the Japanese trouble." Tensions rapidly de-escalated after the fleet's very friendly reception in Yokohama. Thus, the gesture neutralized the diplomatic trouble that had resulted from anti-Japanese riots in San Francisco. Those problems had been resolved by the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 and the fleet visit was a friendly gesture to Japan. The Japanese welcomed it. Roosevelt saw the deployment as one that would encourage patriotism, and give the impression that he would teach Japan "a lesson in polite behavior", as historian Robert A. Hart phrased it. After the fleet had crossed the Pacific, Japanese statesmen realized that the balance of power in the East had changed. Many carriers declined this offer because they could not obtain enough cargo to cover the cost of the return trip. Two months before the fleet sailed, Roosevelt ordered the United States Department of the Navy to contract 38 ships to supply the fleet with the 125,000 tons of coal it would need to steam from Hampton Roads, Virginia, to San Francisco. Only eight of these were American-registered; most of the other 30 were of British registry. This development was potentially awkward, since part of the mission was to impress Japan with the perception of overwhelming American naval power. Britain had become a military ally of Japan in 1902 with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, which obliged it to aid Japan should a foreign power declare war against it. Technically, the list of potential combatants included the United States. The British government decided to play both sides of the political fence with the intent of moderating any Japanese-American friction that might arise.

Prior to the ships’ departure, Congress raised concerns about funding. According to the Naval Historical Center, Maine Senator Eugene Hale made his intention known to withhold funding for the effort. Roosevelt's response was that if Congress was unwilling to fund the trip, he already had the funds to send the fleet out into the Pacific. If Congress wanted the fleet to return home, though, they would have to fund the other half of the trip. As noted by Roosevelt biographer Edmund Morris, the President would not be deterred. He stated "I am Commander-in-Chief, and my decision is absolute in the matter."

Voyage

thumb| sails ahead of as the fleet leaves [[Hampton Roads, Virginia, on 16 December 1907.]]

thumb|A 1908 postcard welcomes the fleet to Australia.

thumb|The Fleet Passing Through the Magellan Straits by naval artist [[Henry Reuterdahl, who traveled with the fleet on USS Culgoa]]

The Great White Fleet's journey began with its display at the Jamestown Exposition in Hampton Roads, Virginia, marking the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown. As the Panama Canal was not yet complete, the fleet had to pass through the Straits of Magellan. The scope of such an operation was unprecedented in U.S. history, as ships had to sail from all points of the compass to rendezvous points and proceed according to a carefully orchestrated, well-conceived plan.

Unlike the formidable obstacles that had faced the Russian fleet on its voyage from the Baltic to the Pacific, which eventually led to its destruction by the Japanese in 1905, the U.S. effort benefited from a peaceful environment, which aided the coordination of ship movements.

After taking nearly four months to round South America, the fleet made several stops in American waters on the Pacific Ocean. In port after port, thousands of citizens turned out to see and greet the fleet. In April 1908, 16 battleships anchored off of Coronado, California, in the San Diego area, and thousands of sailors and marines took part in a parade through San Diego's streets. The fleet also stopped in Los Angeles and Santa Barbara. In May 1908, the fleet visited Monterey, California; the nearby Hotel Del Monte in Del Monte, California, hosted a grand ball for the officers of the fleet. After arriving in San Francisco on 6 May, most of the fleet took a side trip to Seattle and Tacoma, then returned to San Francisco.

On 7 July, the entire fleet left San Francisco for Honolulu, New Zealand, and Australia. In Australia, the arrival of the Great White Fleet on 20 August 1908 was used to encourage support for the forming of Australia's own navy. In Sicily, sailors helped in recovery operations after the 1908 Messina earthquake.

Fleet composition

thumb|President [[Theodore Roosevelt, (on gun turret, right) addressing officers and crew on , in Hampton Roads, Virginia, 22 February 1909]]

The 14-month-long voyage was intended to be a grand pageant of American naval power. The squadrons were manned by 14,000 sailors. They covered some and made 20 port calls on six continents.

The battleships were accompanied during the first leg of their voyage by a "Torpedo Flotilla" of six early destroyers, and by several auxiliary ships. The destroyers and their tender did not actually steam in company with the battleships, but followed their own itinerary from Hampton Roads to San Francisco, California.

General fleet itinerary

thumb| leading the Great White Fleet, 1907

thumb|The Great White Fleet arriving at the [[Port of Los Angeles in the San Pedro Bay, 1908]]

thumb|Fleet Week celebrations in [[Auckland, New Zealand]]

With as flagship under the command of Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, the fleet sailed from Hampton Roads on 16 December 1907 for Trinidad, British West Indies, thence to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Punta Arenas, Chile; Callao, Peru; Magdalena Bay, Mexico, and north along the West Coast, arriving at San Francisco on 6 May 1908.

At San Francisco, Rear Admiral Charles S. Sperry assumed command of the fleet, owing to the poor health of Admiral Evans. Also at San Francisco, the squadrons were slightly rearranged, bringing the newest and best ships in the fleet up to the First Squadron. was detached and later became the supply ship of the Pacific Fleet. At this time also, Nebraska, under Captain Reginald F. Nicholson, and Wisconsin, under Captain Frank E. Beatty, were substituted for Maine and Alabama. In San Francisco, was brought forward into First Squadron, First Division, and took her place as flagship, Second Squadron.

Leaving that port on 7 July 1908 the U.S. Atlantic Fleet visited Honolulu; Auckland, New Zealand; Sydney, Melbourne, and Albany, Australia; Manila, Philippines; Yokohama, Japan; and Colombo, Ceylon; then arriving at Suez, Egypt, on 3 January 1909.

While the fleet was in Egypt, word was received of an earthquake in Sicily, thus affording an opportunity for the United States to show its friendship to Italy by offering aid to its victims. Connecticut, , , and were dispatched to Messina, Italy, at once. The crew of Illinois recovered the bodies of the American consul, Arthur S. Cheney, and his wife, entombed in the ruins. , the fleet's station ship at Constantinople, and , a refrigerator ship fitted out in New York, were hurried to Messina, relieving Connecticut and Illinois, so that they could continue on the cruise.

First Division consisted of four ships of the 1906 Connecticut class:

Connecticut, the fleet's flagship,

Captain Hugo Osterhaus;

Captain Charles E. Vreeland;

Captain William P. Potter; and

Louisiana,

Captain Richard Wainwright.

Second Division was commanded by Rear Admiral William H. Emory.

Second Division consisted of four ships of the 1904 Virginia class:

, the division flagship,

Captain Henry McCrea;

Captain William H. H. Southerland;

Captain Joseph B. Murdock; and

Captain Seaton Schroeder.

Second Squadron and Third Division were commanded by Rear Admiral Charles M. Thomas.

Third Division consisted of one Connecticut-class ship and the three ships of the 1902 Maine class:

Minnesota, the squadron flagship,

Captain John Hubbard;

Maine,

Captain Giles B. Harber;

Captain Greenlief A. Merriam; and

Captain Charles W. Bartlett.

Fourth Division was commanded by Rear Admiral Charles S. Sperry.

Fourth Division consisted of two ships of the 1901 Illinois class and the two 1900 Kearsarge class ships:

Alabama, the division flagship,

Captain Ten Eyck De Witt Veeder;

Illinois,

Captain John M. Bowyer,

Kearsarge,

Captain Hamilton Hutchins; and

Kentucky,

Captain Walter C. Cowles.

The fleet auxiliaries consisted of

Culgoa (a storeship),

Lieutenant Commander John B. Patton;

Glacier (a storeship),

Commander William S. Hogg;

(a repair ship),

Commander Valentine S. Nelson;

Yankton (a tender),

Lieutenant Walter R. Gherardi; and

(a hospital ship).

The "Torpedo Flotilla" of destroyers consisted of

Lieutenant Alfred G. Howe;

Lieutenant Julius F. Hellweg;

Lieutenant Frank McCommon;

Lieutenant Charles S. Kerrick;

Lieutenant Ernest Friedrick;

Lieutenant Hutch I. Cone; and

(a tender),

Commander Albert W. Grant.

Second leg

Itinerary

thumb|400px| Historical marker in Seattle that notes the 1908 arrival of the Fleet.

thumb|The fleet in San Francisco: Virginia is closest to the camera, with the other ships anchored nearby. thumb|Great White Fleet passing Trinidad Head, California 1908

The second leg of the voyage was from San Francisco to Puget Sound and back. On 23 May 1908 the 16 battleships of the Great White Fleet steamed into Puget Sound where they separated to visit six Washington state ports: Bellingham, Bremerton, Port Angeles, Port Townsend, Seattle and Tacoma. The fleet arrived in Seattle on 23 May and departed 27 May 1908.

Ships

The Fleet, First Squadron, and First Division were commanded by Rear Admiral Charles S. Sperry. </blockquote>

The Times of London editorialized regarding the extremely enthusiastic reception in Australia: "A spectacular display has valuable uses in impressing the masses, who will remember the sight for years, and draw important political deductions therefrom."

Effects on US capital ship design

The was laid down in 1906 and entered service in 1910 as the first American dreadnought. It was coal fired. While the capital ships of the Great White Fleet were already obsolete in light of the "big gun" revolution ushered in by the construction of , their behavior at sea furnished valuable information that affected future construction. For instance, in terms of seaworthiness, all the capital ships in the fleet proved wet in all but the calmest seas, which led to the flared bows of subsequent U.S. battleships, increased freeboard forward and such spray-reducing measures as the elimination of billboards for anchors and gun sponsons. Increased freeboard was needed; this and related considerations demanded increases in beam and overall size. Between the s, the last American capital ships completed before data from the cruise became available, and the , the first designed after this data was received, displacement (and, as a result, cost) per ship increased by one third.

thumb|12 January 1908 – Arrival at Rio de Janeiro – Fleet enters Guanabara BayDeficiencies in seaworthiness in turn reduced the battle-worthiness of the fleet. Turret heights for main armament proved too low and needed to be raised. Secondary armament was useless at speed and especially in tradewind conditions (with the wind moving over the sea at or greater) and needed to be moved much higher in the hull. Improved placement began with the Wyoming-class battleships and was further refined in the . Casemates for the bow 3-inch guns in the newer pre-dreadnoughts were untenable due to wetness and were removed. Another discovery was that, even when fully loaded, the bottom of the battleships' side armor was visible—and the ships thus vulnerable to shells that might hit beneath it to reach their machinery and magazines—in smooth to moderate seas. The profile of crests and troughs in some ships contributed to this problem. Admiral Evans concluded that the standard width of belt armor was inadequate.

One other necessity the cruise outlined was the need for tactical homogeneity. Before the cruise, critics such as then-Captain William Sims (to whom President Roosevelt listened) had argued that American warship design had remained too conservative and precluded the level of efficiency needed for the fleet to function as an effective unit. The cruise proved the charge true. This would eventually lead to the building of standard-type battleships in the U.S. Navy. When President Roosevelt convened the 1908 Newport Conference of the Naval War College, he placed responsibility for U.S. battleship design on the General Board of the United States Navy. This gave line officers and planners direct input and control over warship design, a pattern which has persisted to the present day.

Effects on fleet operations

Experience gained by the cruise led to improvements in formation steaming, coal economy and morale. Gunnery exercises doubled the fleet's accuracy. However, the mission also underlined the fleet's dependence on foreign colliers and the need for coaling stations and auxiliary ships for resupply.

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

, for secondary schools
Hodge, Carl Cavanagh. "A Whiff of Cordite: Theodore Roosevelt and the Transoceanic Naval Arms Race, 1897–1909." Diplomacy & Statecraft 19.4 (2008): 712–31.
Holmes, James R. "'A Striking Thing' Leadership, Strategic Communications, and Roosevelt’s Great White Fleet." Naval War College Review 61.1 (2008): 50–67. Online
Leeman, William, and John B Hattendorf, eds. Forging the Trident: Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Navy (2020) excerpt ch 9.
Love, Robert W., Jr. History of the US Navy: Volume One 1775–1941 (Stackpole, 1992) 1:434–56.
McMahon, Christopher. "The Great White Fleet Sails Today?" Naval War College Review 71.4 (2018): 67–90. online
Megaw, Ruth. "Australia and the Great White Fleet 1908" Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society (April 1970) 56#2 pp. 121–33; focus on the reasons for the thunderous reception in terms of fear of Japan after its navy sank the Russian navy.
Neu, Charles E. An Uncertain Friendship: Theodore Roosevelt and Japan, 1906–1909 (1967) pp. 254–309, on war scare with Japan
Oyos, Matthew M. "Theodore Roosevelt and the implements of war." Journal of Military History 60.4 (1996): 631+ online
Pellett, C. Roger. "Boats of the Great White Fleet: The Standard United States Navy Boats of 1900" Nautical Research Journal (Winter 2012) 57#4 pp. 209–16.
Werry, Margaret. "'The Greatest Show on Earth': Political Spectacle, Spectacular Politics, and the American Pacific." Theatre Journal 57.3 (2005): 355–82. about the Great White Fleet; excerpt

thumb|book jacket of Matthews, With the Battle Fleet (1908)

Primary sources

Codd, Margaret J. With Evans to the Pacific: A Story of the Battle Fleet (1909), a novel.
Matthews, Franklin. With the Battle Fleet: Cruise of the sixteen battleships of the United States Atlantic Fleet from Hampton Roads to the Golden Gate, December 1907–May 1908 (1908) online
Matthews, Franklin. Back to Hampton Roads: Cruise of the US Atlantic Fleet from San Francisco to Hampton Roads, July 7, 1908–February 22, 1909 (1909) online
Miller, Roman John. Around the World with the Battleships (AC McClurg & Company, 1909). online, sailor accounts
Miller, Roman John. Pictorial log of the battle fleet cruise around the world (1909).

External links

US Navy Historical Center Site
Naval Auxiliary Air Station, Monterey
Guide to the Theodore W. Richards Great White Fleet Scrapbook, 1908–1909; 1916; 1945 MS 219 held by Special Collection & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy