Giovanni Giustiniani Longo (; ; 1418 – 1 June 1453) was a Genoese nobleman, mercenary captain, and defender of Constantinople during its siege in 1453. He was instrumental in its defense and commanded 700 men, as well as leading the land forces protecting the city.
Family and early life
Giustiniani was a member of the powerful House of Giustiniani and was probably native to the island of Chios. Although little is known of his origin, Giustiniani was known to be a mercenary soldier, which indicates that he was likely not the first born son of his family, as mercenary nobles typically chose that life due to not being owed the family inheritance.
The state of Byzantium in 1400
The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, had endured from 330 AD all the way to the fifteenth century. While it was originally a major power in the Eastern Mediterranean that outlasted many neighboring and competing empires, it had declined significantly in both influence and territory approaching the middle of the fifteenth century. Its many conflicts with neighboring states had seen its borders slowly pushed back. The loss that had the most influence on the state of Byzantium at the time of its fall was its temporary dissolution in 1204 when European crusaders conquered the city of Constantinople and drove the remaining Byzantine loyalists out of their seat of power. Though it was eventually reclaimed, and imperial authority restored, it would decidedly put an end to Byzantium's status as a major military power. Byzantium now only retained limited regional influence and had to contend with an Islamist neighbor known as the Ottoman Empire looking to expand west into their territory.
By the time of the final siege of Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to a single city. A city that, while impressively resilient against attack, had been sacked and conquered before by both internal Byzantine rebellions and the aforementioned crusaders. Furthermore, the harsh conditions created in the city due to the previously listed factors had created factionalism. This ranged from religious and ethnic tensions to the formation of outright loyalist and separatist factions. By the time of the siege, there were pro-Byzantines, pro-Ottomans and neutral factions all occupying the same city. Furthermore, for the mercenaries from the Italian city-states, Christian Byzantines made practical sense as an avenue for their employment; both for money and the shared religion.
Though practical business needs likely accounted for most mercenaries that ended up in Constantinople, there are also other rationales which likely drew mercenaries into service. The city hosted a rather large Venetian civilian population, and smaller populations from the region such as a neighborhood of Genoese civilians. As a result of which the Byzantines had begun heavily relying on mercenaries from the thirteenth century onwards. Although rebellions by mercenaries were not an uncommon occurrence, the frequency was considerably less than native born rebellions. This placed him as the leader of the city's defense, and while it is clear why such a position would go to a mercenary, it is less clear why Giustiniani specifically was selected. One potential explanation comes from the fact that many of the defenders present were Venetian and there was also a quite large Venetian civilian population that was discontent with Constantine's rule. Selecting Giustiniani meant that Constantine had a Protostrator who would not aid the Venetians in the event they attempted to launch a coup, and that they also would find themselves with fewer volunteers to assist in their own potential coup as there were comparatively fewer Genoese mercenaries and civilians than Venetians.
Once selected as Protostrator, he was tasked with training soldiers, reinforcing fortifications, and generally preparing for the imminent attack. Learning from the siege of 1422, he directed the defense efforts at the outer walls, with Archbishop Leonardo di Chio's suggestion that the inner walls defence would not be prioritized due to their supposed disrepair.
Upon Sultan Mehmed's arrival on April 6, Giustiniani began commanding sorties to counterattack the Ottoman position. These are recorded as being very successful, and resulted in the destruction of Ottoman troops, siege works and artillery. However, sorties were gradually abandoned due to their high death rates. His approach regarding wall repairs was also a hindrance to the Ottomans; his strategy involved cushioning the blow of artillery fire by covering the walls in soft surfaces, and then filling gaps created by cannonballs with debris (which turned out to be highly effective as the cannonballs would simply sink into the rubble). The unprecedented nature of the Ottoman artillery meant that Giustiniani likely neither knew the extent of his enemy's artillery nor knew how to defend against artillery on that scale, but rather he came up with defensive plans during the siege. The quick thinking displayed in such a solution likely indicates that Giustiniani's defense was as effective as it was because he was an adaptive leader. Throughout the siege, Giustiniani and his men repaired the damaged walls, plugging gaps with soldiers to repel assaults when necessary. He also made use of small artillery pieces containing grapeshot, projectiles and items to drop on attackers attempting to scale the walls.
The first assault occurred on 18 April, with a detachment of Janissaries and archers being sent towards a breach in the middle section of the walls.
Giustiniani's downfall came during this assault, when a cannon or crossbow bolt severely wounded his arm, chest or leg, forcing a retreat from his combat station. As he exited the battle, the defenders' morale was severely weakened and men began to flee in panic. Giustiniani was taken to his ship with hopes of his wounds being cared for, and as it became known that Constantinople had fallen, fled alongside his men. Sources hostile towards the Genoese (such as the Venetian Nicolò Barbaro), however, report that he was only lightly wounded or not wounded at all, but, overwhelmed by fear, simulated the wound to abandon the battlefield, determining the fall of the city. These charges of cowardice and treason were so widespread that the Republic of Genoa had to deny them by sending diplomatic letters to the Chancelleries of England, France, the Duchy of Burgundy and others.
Giustiniani succumbed to his wounds on 1 June, and was taken to the Genoese island of Chios. He was laid to rest at the Church of San Domenico in Pyrgi, Chios and although his tomb is lost (possibly from the 1881 earthquake), several descriptions survive.
Primary sources
The most prevalent primary source which mentions Giovanni Giustiniani is Nicolò Barbaro's The Siege of Constantinople in 1453 in which he gives his own eyewitness account of what occurred during the fall of Constantinople. The work covers both the siege itself and the immediate aftermath with Barbaro's biases laid clear upon the page. Giustiniani appears in the text under the name Zuan Zustignan and is portrayed as a coward that fled his post and lied to the populace about the Ottomans breaking in to spread panic. While the newer interpretations do contest some claims of the previous sources, mostly all they do is expand upon previous information or contain roughly the same amount as previous; there is no real shift in debate.
Portrayals
- Giustiniani is played by Kemal Ergünenç in the Turkish film İstanbul'un Fethi (1951)
- Cengiz Coşkun plays Giustiniani in the Turkish film Fetih 1453 (2012). In the film, he is killed by Ulubatlı Hasan (İbrahim Çelikkol) during the last day in the siege of Constantinople.
- He appears as a protagonist in Andrew Novo's novel Queen of Cities
- He appears as a major character in Mika Waltari's novel The Dark Angel
- He appears as a major character in the historical novel Porphyry and Ash by Peter Sandham
- He is portrayed by Birkan Sokullu in the Turkish historical docuseries Rise of Empires: Ottoman (2020)
- Giovanni Giustiniani was portrayed by Luka Peroš in the Turkish historical series Mehmed: Sultan of Conquests. In the series, he is shown to be in love with Anna Notaras and is killed before the Fall of Constantinople.
See also
Fall of Constantinople