Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 40 – 103 AD) was a Roman civil engineer, author, soldier and senator of the late 1st century AD. He was a successful general under Domitian, commanding forces in Roman Britain, and on the Rhine and Danube frontiers. A novus homo, he was consul three times. Frontinus ably discharged several important administrative duties for Nerva and Trajan. However, he is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especially De aquaeductu, dealing with the aqueducts of Rome.

Family

Due to a lack of either a titulus honorarius or sepulcralis, there is no outline of Frontinus' life, the names of his parents, or of his wife. Some details can be inferred from chance mentions: He is thought to be of Narbonese origins, and originally of the equestrian class. From the nomenclature of the name of Publius Calvisius Ruso Julius Frontinus (consul c. 84), it is likely Frontinus had a sister, who was the other's mother. Frontinus had at least one daughter, the wife of Quintus Sosius Senecio (cos. 99, II 107) and mother of Sosia Polla.

Career

In AD 70, Frontinus participated in the suppression of the Rhineland revolt, and later recorded that he received the surrender of 70,000 Lingones. Between that date and being appointed governor of Britain to succeed Quintus Petillius Cerialis a few years later, Frontinus was appointed suffect consul. While governor of Britain, he subjugated the Silures of South Wales and is thought to have likewise campaigned against the Brigantes. He was succeeded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the father-in-law of the famous historian Tacitus, in 77. Birley believes it "is fair to speculate" that Frontinus was with Domitian during the German campaign of 83. An inscription at Hieropolis in Phrygia, as well as a number of coins of Smyrna, attests that he was proconsul of Asia in AD 86. He died in 103 or 104, a date based on Pliny the Younger writing to his friends that he was elected to the college of augurs to fill the vacancy Frontinus' death had created.

thumb|Remains of Aqua Claudia

Distribution system

Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for drinking water. Intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticized the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system.

Maintenance

He was very concerned by leaks in the system, especially those in the underground conduits, which were difficult to locate and mend, a problem still faced by water engineers today. The aqueducts above ground needed care to ensure that the masonry was kept in good condition, especially those running on arched superstructures. It was, he said, essential to keep trees at a distance so that their roots would not damage the structures. He reviewed the existing law governing the state aqueducts, as well as the need for enforcement of those statutes.

Military tactics

Frontinus also wrote a theoretical treatise on military science, which is lost. His extant work on military matters, the Stratagems (Latin: Strategemata), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general in Germania under Domitian, but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors like Valerius Maximus and Livy suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources. The authenticity of the fourth book has been challenged.

One example he gives of control of river water during a siege reads:

Selected editions and translations

thumb|Stratagemata, 1664

De aquaeductu

  • The standard edition of the Latin text of Frontinus' major work, with extensive commentary in English, is now R.H. Rodgers, Frontinus: De aquaeductu urbis Romae (Cambridge University Press, 2004).
  • Rodgers has published his English translation online [http://www.uvm.edu/~rrodgers/Frontinus.html]
  • An English translation by Charles E. Bennet, edited by Mary B. McElwain, has been published in the Loeb Classical Library.
  • A translation by Herschel is useful for his commentary on the engineering aspects of the De aquaeductu.

Other works

  • The latest edition of the Stratagems is by R. I. Ireland (Teubner, 1990 ) ; English translation in Loeb Classical Library (translated by Charles Bennet and edited by Mary B. McElwain), 1925.
  • Extracts from a treatise on land surveying ascribed to Frontinus are preserved in B. Campbell (2000), The Writings of the Roman Land Surveyors: Introduction, Text, Translation and Commentary, London.
  • The Stratagems and The Aqueducts of Rome, translated by Charles E. BENNETT (1858 - 1921), available on Librivox as an audiobook.

In fiction

He appears as a fictionalised character in the Marcus Didius Falco novels The Silver Pigs, Shadows in Bronze, Three Hands in the Fountain, and The Jupiter Myth. He also appears as a character in The Centurions novels Barbarian Princess and The Emperor's Games.

See also

  • Cloaca Maxima
  • Dolaucothi
  • Gromatici
  • List of aqueducts in the city of Rome
  • List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire
  • List of Roman aqueducts by date
  • Quinaria
  • Roman aqueducts
  • Roman conquest of Britain
  • Aggenus Urbicus

References

Further reading

  • Ashby, Thomas (1934) The Aqueducts of Rome, Oxford.
  • Blackman, Deane R., Hodge, A. Trevor (2001). Frontinus' Legacy: Essays on Frontinus' de aquis urbis Romae. University of Michigan Press.
  • Dahm, Murray K (1997), The Career and Writings of Sextus Julius Frontinus. Master's Thesis, University of Auckland.
  • Herschel, C (1973) The Two Books on The Water Supply of the City of Rome of Frontinus, (trans with explanatory chapters) New England Water Works Association.
  • Hodge, A.T. (2001). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, 2nd ed. London: Duckworth.
  • Frontinus at LacusCurtius: full texts of De aquis and Strategemata in Latin and English; illustrated with some of the Monscassinensis manuscript from the Herschel edition.
  • Sextus Iulius Frontinus
  • Models of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome
  • Routes of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome
  • Famous Fountains of Rome
  • The Fountains of Rome (by Region)
  • Spanish site dedicated to Roman technology, especially aqueducts and mines