José Francisco Morazán Quezada (3 October 1792 – 15 September 1842) was a Central American statesman, military officer, and who served as the president of the Federal Republic of Central America on three occasions between 1829 and 1839. He also served as the head of state of Honduras thrice between 1827 and 1830, the head of state of El Salvador twice in 1832 and 1839 to 1840, and the head of state of Costa Rica in 1842.
Born in Tegucigalpa, Morazán faced difficulties in obtaining an education due to a lack of available schools and due to his being born in the New World rather than on the Iberian Peninsula. He joined a militia in Tegucigalpa that opposed Central America's annexation to Mexico in 1821 as a lieutenant. He rose to prominence at the Battle of La Trinidad on 11 November 1827. Morazán then dominated the political and military scene of Central America until his execution in 1842. In the political arena, Francisco Morazán was recognized as a visionary and great thinker, as he attempted to transform Central America into one large and progressive nation. He enacted liberal reforms in the new Federal Republic of Central America, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Morazán also limited church power by making marriage secular and abolishing government-aided tithing.
These reforms made him some powerful enemies, and his period of rule was marked by bitter infighting between liberals and conservatives. But through his military skills, Morazán was able to keep a firm grip on power until 1837, when the Federal Republic became irrevocably fractured. This was exploited by the conservative leaders, who rallied around the leadership of Rafael Carrera and in order to protect their own interests, ended up dividing Central America into five nations.
Early life
Early years and education
José Francisco Morazán Quezada was born on 3 October 1792, in Tegucigalpa, then a part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala in New Spain. His parents were Eusebio Morazán<!--Alemán-->, a (a Spaniard born in the New World) from the Antilles, and Guadalupe Quezada<!--Borjas-->, a Central American. Morazán's paternal ancestors were of Corsican descent and originally bore the surname Morazzani before changing to it Morazán, its Spanish form. His maternal ancestors belonged to the Quezada family, one of the most distinguished families of Tegucigalpa at the time. Morazán had three younger siblings: Marcelina, Cesárea, and Benito.
thumb|left|upright=0.8|alt=A photograph of the St. Michael the Archangel Cathedral|The [[Tegucigalpa Cathedral|St. Michael the Archangel Cathedral in Tegucigalpa where Morazán was baptized]]
Morazán was baptized on 16 October at the St. Michael the Archangel Cathedral in Tegucigalpa. Despite Morazán's mixed ancestry and status as a , he was identified as Spanish on his baptismal certificate in order to avoid discrimination from the colonial system that blocked non- (Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula) from attending universities or obtaining employment in law and science.
In Morazán's early years, he was educated in a private school that was funded by his parents as there were no other schools available. In 1804 at the age of twelve, Morazán attended a Latin school taught by priest José Antonio Murga. The following year, however, Murga was replaced by friar Andrés López, a who opposed teaching Latin to forcing Morazán to abandon his studies. For the rest of Morazán's education, he visited several convents hoping that its members would provide him with lessons. Morazán studied in mathematics, drawing, and law. At some point, Morazán worked at the notary office of Tegucigalpa. While working there, Morazán learned skills in jurisprudence and business administration.
Early military and political career
On 15 September 1821, Central America bloodlessly declared its independence from the Spanish Empire. Shortly after independence, however, the region's leaders were divided on whether to maintain their independence or to seek annexation to the First Mexican Empire. In Honduras, Comayagua supported annexation while Tegucigalpa opposed it. In late 1821, Morazán joined a militia in Tegucigalpa that opposed annexation. He held the rank of lieutenant and was the aide-de-camp to the militia's first battalion. In April 1822, Morazán was arrested by pro-annexation forces in the Comayagua valley while he was traveling to Gracias to prepare the city to recruit militiamen for the Tegucigalpa militia. He was released three days later and recruited 14 militiamen in Gracias.
thumb|right|upright=0.9|alt=A photograph of Francisco Morazán's military uniform on display|Morazán's 1830s military uniform on display at the Casa Morazán
Although Mexican military forces commanded by Brigadier Vicente Filísola were dispatched to the region to enforce its annexation, the overthrow of Mexican emperor Agustín de Iturbide in 1823 led Filísola to call for a congress of Central American leaders in Guatemala City to decide the region's future. On 1 July, the congress declared independence from Mexico and the establishment of the United Provinces of Central America, later renamed to the Federal Republic of Central America on 22 November 1824.
Dionisio de Herrera became Head of State of Honduras in December 1824 after being elected by the Honduran Constituent Assembly. Herrera appointed Morazán as Minister General. During Morazán's tenure, he helped Herrera combat several issues facing the state including a bankrupt treasury, a disorganized judiciary, and continued ideological tensions between Comayagua and Tegucigalpa, among others. On 11 December 1825, Morazán ratified the constitution of Honduras. In April 1826, Morazán was elected as a state councillor (equivalent of a senator) by the assembly and became the president of the council of state, upon which, he resigned as Minister General.
Rise to power
First civil war
In 1826, the Federal Government headed by Manuel José Arce attempted to dissolve the federal congress and called a meeting to be held in Cojutepeque, on 10 October 1826, to elect an extraordinary congress. This unconstitutional move was rejected by the Honduran head of state, Dionisio de Herrera. But President Arce did not recognize Herrera's authority, claiming that Herrera's provisional mandate had expired, and that he was in power illegitimately. For this reason, the National Assembly had called for new elections in Honduras, but Herrera had ignored this decree and remained in power. For these reasons, but under the guise of protecting Copán's tobacco plantations owned by the federal government, Arce decided to oust Herrera. This mission was entrusted to colonel Justo Milla, who on 9 April 1827, commanded 200 men and seized Comayagua (the state capital) capturing Herrera and sending him to a Guatemalan prison.
While Milla was busy consolidating power in Comayagua, Morazán escaped from the federal troops. He left the besieged capital in the company of colonels Remigio Díaz and José Antonio Márquez, with the purpose of getting reinforcements in Tegucigalpa. Their plan was to return, and to liberate the state capital. Upon their return from Tegucigalpa, his men clashed with Milla's forces on the ranch 'La Maradiaga'. This confrontation, had no major consequences for either side; Milla remained in charge of Honduras, and Morazán left for Ojojona where he was captured and transferred to Tegucigalpa by order of Major Ramón Anguiano.
But Francisco Morazán managed to escape from his captors and left for La Unión, El Salvador, with the intention of emigrating to Mexico. and to give to his people a society based upon general education, religious liberty and social and political equality. In 1831 Morazán and Governor Mariano Gálvez turned Guatemala into a testing ground for these 'enlightenment-like' policies. They oversaw the building of schools and roads, enacted free trade policies, invited foreign capital and immigrants, allowed secular marriage and divorce and freedom of speech, tried to make public lands available to the expanding cochineal economy, separated church from state, abolished tithes, proclaimed religious liberties, confiscated church property, suppressed religious orders, and removed education from church control,
Second term, 1835–1839
thumb|right|upright=0.8|alt=A drawing of José Cecilio del Valle|[[José Cecilio del Valle, who won the 1833 presidential election but died before he assumed office]]
In 1834 at the request of Governor, Mariano Galvez, the General moved the capital city to Sonsonate and later to San Salvador. The same year, the first four years of Francisco Morazán's presidency had ended. According to the constitution, elections needed to be held in order to elect the next president of the Republic. Moderate, José Cecilio del Valle ran against the incumbent president; for this reason, General Francisco Morazán deposited the presidency on General Gregorio Salazar, so the federal congress could verify the fairness of the election.
When all the votes were counted, del Valle had defeated Francisco Morazán. The Federal elections showed strong popular opposition to liberal reforms. Valle, however, died before taking office. Most historians agree that had he lived, he might have brought conciliation and harmony between the opposing forces (Liberals and Conservatives). On June 2, the Federal Congress called for new elections, which were won by Francisco Morazán. On 14 February 1835, General Morazán, was sworn as president for a second term.
End of the federation
thumb|left|upright=1.0|alt=An 1840 map of the Federal Republic of Central America|An 1840 map of the [[Federal Republic of Central America by German cartographer Heinrich Berghaus]]
In February 1837 there occurred in Central America a series of events that ignited a revolution that culminated with the fall of the Federation. An epidemic of cholera scourged Guatemala leaving approximately 1,000 people dead and 3,000 infected with the bacteria. The epidemic struck especially the poor and the Indians in the highlands of the state. At the time when it appeared, the Indians of the district of Mita, influenced by their priests, were much perturbed over the system of trial by jury (incomprehensible to them) which was being introduced. The disease spread rapidly and the government of Mariano Galvez, hoping to alleviate the situation, dispatched the available physicians, medical students and remedies for distribution. But these measures were of little help because the Indians continued to die.
The church viewed this as an opportunity to strike back at the liberal government of Mariano Gálvez. The local priests spread the rumor that the government had poisoned the rivers and streams for the purpose of wiping out the indigenous population, and repopulating it with foreigners. In proof, they pointed to a recent grant of territory in Vera Paz made to a British colonization company. A cry was then raised by the frantic Indians against their supposed murderers. As the cholera continued to spread the Indians took to arms, killed whites and liberals, burned their houses, and prepared to confront Galvez's government.
The governor sent an army to try to stop the revolt. But the army's measures were so repressive, that it only made matters worse. By June Santa Rosa erupted, and from the village of Mataquescuintla emerged a young Rafael Carrera. Carrera was an illiterate, but shrewd and charismatic swineherd turned highwayman, whom the rebels wanted as their leader. The priests proclaimed to the natives that he was their protecting angel Rafael, descended from the heavens to take vengeance on the heretics, Liberals and foreigners and to restore their ancient dominion. They devised various tricks to favor the delusion, which were heralded as miracles. A letter was let down from the roof of one of the churches, in the midst of a vast congregation of Indians, which was supposed to come from the Virgin Mary, commissioning Carrera to lead a revolt against the government.
Under cries of "Long live religion!", and "Death to foreigners!", Carrera and his forces initiated a war against the government. Encouraged by these events the conservatives joined in. The liberal government called General Morazán for help. Francisco Morazán repeatedly defeated Carrera's forces and pacified the state, but he could never catch the Indian leader, as he simply retreated to the mountains and came back to re-occupy the key positions as soon as Morazán's troops left.
thumb|right|upright=0.75|alt=A drawing of Francisco Morazán|Drawing of Morazán by Frederich Van Dolvetz, 1838
By 1838 Morazán was presiding over a dying institution. Galvez had relinquished power, Congress tried to restore some life to the Federal Government by transferring control of their custom revenues. But Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica opposed this move and used it as an opportunity to leave the union. The Federation was dead. On February 1, 1839, Morazán had completed his second constitutional term as president,
When Rafael Carrera and the Guatemalan conservatives learned about Morazán's new role, they declared war on El Salvador. Francisco Morazán personified the 'Old Federation' itself and for that reason alone they vowed to defeat him. On July 24, Guatemala and Nicaragua signed a treaty of alliance against Morazán's government. Carrera called on the Salvadoran people to rise against their government. These calls resulted in small uprisings within El Salvador, but these were quickly put down without much effort by Morazán.
When Carrera's attempt failed, Morazán's enemies formed an army of Nicaraguan and Honduran troops. On September 25, 1839, these forces invaded El Salvador and faced Morazán's army during the battle of San Pedro Perulapán. The general only needed 600 Salvadorans to defeat 2,000 men commanded by generals Francisco Ferrera, Nicolás de Espinosa, and Manuel Quijano. After their defeat, the humiliated generals and their troops fled to neighboring states, leaving behind over three hundred dead.
Defeat
On 18 March 1840 Morazán made a last attempt to restore the 'Union'. He gathered what he thought were enough Salvadoran forces to face Carrera, and with them marched to Guatemala. Once positioned, Morazán moved in from the south, striking towards the capital. Carrera pulled most of his own force out of the capital, leaving only a small, very visible garrison inside. Morazán jumped in, slaughtered much of the bait, then found himself assaulted from all directions by Carrera's main force of about 5,000 men.
The battle became notorious for its savagery and revealed the ruthless side of Carrera. whose Indians sang Salve Regina, and shouted "Long Live Carrera!", "Death to Morazán!"
While he was still in David, Morazán also received calls from his liberal colleagues in Costa Rica. Braulio Carrillo, governor of that state, had restricted individual liberties, placed limits on freedom of the press, and derogated the Political Constitution of 1825. He replaced it with a new constitutional charter, denominated "Law of Bases and Guarantees", where he declared himself 'Chief of State for Life'. Furthermore, Carrillo declared Costa Rica a free and independent state. However, Morazán wanted to stay away from Central America affairs, and travelled to Peru. Once in Lima, he received the invitation of Mariscal Agustín Gamarra to command a Peruvian division, at a time when his country was at war with Chile. But Morazán declined, because he found this war very confusing and troubling. Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Chile were all involved in a twelve-year war, which brought about a train of baneful stages of chaos, among all countries involved. devoted himself to urgent reforms, and convened the Constituent Assembly, which appointed him Supreme Chief of the Costa Rican State.
According to historian Gomez Carrillo, in the months that followed, Morazán concentrated on recruiting military personnel for the purpose of 'restoring the Central America motherland.' Thereafter, rumors of the possibility of war against the neighboring states spread. This troubled Costa Ricans; they feared Rafael Carrera would intervene in their affairs, specially after Guatemala broke ties with them. In addition they felt financially incapable of sustaining a war, and also considered it unnecessary. After all, the restoration of the 'Union' was a cause they didn't believe in. For all these reasons they decided to conspire against Morazán.
Morazán was one of only three presidents in Costa Rica history to have been a military officer while in office.
Execution
thumb|right|upright=0.9|alt=A photograph of Francisco Morazán's tomb|Morazán's tomb in the [[Cemetery of Distinguished Citizens in San Salvador, El Salvador]]
On 11 September 1842, a popular movement opposed to Morazán erupted in San José. Led by Portuguese General António Pinto Soares, 400 men attacked Morazán's guard of 40 Salvadorans. Morazán and his men managed to repel the attacks and retreat to their headquarters. The fighting continued bloody and relentless, and the insurgents increased to 1,000, while the number of the besieged diminished. Chaplain José Castro then proposed a capitulation to Morazán ensuring his life, but he refused. After 88 hours of fighting, Morazán and his closest collaborators resolved to break the siege. General José Cabañas with 30 men held the retreat, which made it possible for the others to flee towards Cartago.
But the insurrection had spread there too, so Morazán turned for help to his friend, Pedro Mayorga. But Mayorga betrayed him, and turned him over to his enemies along with generals, Vicente Villaseñor, José Saravia and José Trinidad Cabañas. Saravia committed suicide, Villaseñor attempted the same but survived. Subsequently, Morazán and Vicente Villaseñor were sentenced to death. On September 15, Morazán and Villaseñor were transferred to the central plaza in San José.
Before his execution, Morazán dictated his famous will to his son, Francisco. In it, he calls his death "murder" and declares, "I do not have enemies, nor the smaller resentment I take to the grave against my murderers, I forgive them and wish them the greatest good." When he was done, a chair was offered to him but he refused it. Seated next to him was Gen. Villaseñor, sedated and almost unconscious. Morazán then said, "Dear friend, posterity will do us justice" and crossed himself. A few minutes later, Morazán himself commanded the firing squad that ended his life and that of Villaseñor.
Morazán was exhumed by the Costa Rican government in 1848 and his remains were repatriated to El Salvador the following year. The Salvadoran government under Captain General Gerardo Barrios gave him an official burial ceremony in 1859. Morazán is buried in the Cemetery of Distinguished Citizens in San Salvador.
Personal life
Political beliefs
thumb|left|upright=0.7|alt=A photograph of a bust of Francisco Morazán|Bust of Morazán in [[Marcala, Honduras commemorating the bicentennial of his birth]]
Morazán was a liberal and a member of the Central American liberal party. Morazán supported federalism and opposed the existence of a centralized government headquartered in Guatemala.
Marriage and family
Morazán married María Josefa Lastiri, a widow, on 30 December 1825. The couple had a daughter named Adela. Lastiri belonged to one of the wealthiest families in province of Honduras. Her father was the Spanish trader Juan Miguel Lastiri, who played an important part in the commercial development of Tegucigalpa. Her mother was Margarita Lozano, member of a powerful criollo family in the city.
Outside his marriage, Francisco Morazán fathered a son, Francisco Morazán Moncada, who was born on October 4, 1827, to Francisca Moncada, daughter of a well-known Nicaraguan politician named Liberato Moncada. Francisco Morazán Junior lived in the Morazán-Lastiri home and accompanied his father in Guatemala, El Salvador, Panama, Peru and finally in Costa Rica, where his father was executed. After the death of his father, Francisco Morazán Moncada settled in Chinandega, Nicaragua where he devoted himself to farming. He died in 1904 at age 77.
Morazán also had an adoptive son named José Antonio Ruiz. He was the legitimate son of Eusebio Ruiz and the Guatemalan lady Rita Zelayandía, who handed her son to General Morazán when he was 14 years old. José Antonio accompanied his adoptive father on military actions and became a brigadier general. He died in Tegucigalpa in 1883.
Politics and the failed federation
More than a man of ideas, Morazán was a man of action wrote biographer Rafael Eliodoro Valle. But his name cannot fail to brighten the history of ideas in Central America, because he knew how to instill in them; the power of his sincerity, the passion that inflamed him, and his faith in the future, like men of vision who always think big. Francisco Morazán pushed with his liberal and progressive ideas a series of revolutionary measures for the time. Thus, promoting education, immigration, established freedom of worship and the press. The first federal administration headed by Morazán was oriented to the peaceful reconstruction of the several States that comprised the republic.
According to writer, David Alejandro Luna, one of Morazán's biggest mistakes was to not design a plan to break the feudal estates where his secular enemies were sitting ... Morazán's fight was marred of romanticism, his strategic line tended to politically displace the oppressive aristocratic landowners of Central America, his tactics, however, disagreed with the political reality. Despite the strenuous efforts made by General Francisco Morazán from the presidency of the Republic. The clerical and aristocratic forces staged a strong anti-liberal building block taking advantage of the fanaticism and discontent that permeated large sections of the population, especially in the state of Guatemala.
Legacy
Historical assessment
thumb|right|upright=0.9|alt=An equestrian statute of Francisco Morazán|An equestrian statute of Morazán in [[Tegucigalpa, Honduras]]
At the time of Morazán's death, he was widely seen as a tyrant and enemy across Central America largely due to Carrera's popularity. In conservative colonel Manuel Montúfar's memoir Memorias de Jalapa, he promoted unfounded allegations that Morazán had engaged in forgery and abuse of power while working at the Tegucigalpa notary office. Honduran priest and poet José Trinidad Reyes openly attacked Morazán's personal life in his writings.
Although conservatives sought to degrade Morazán's reputation, he became widely revered as a Central America hero by the 1880s. This was largely due to Central American liberals continuing to revere Morazán and liberal governments openly associating themselves with Morazán to the extent that a posthumous cult of personality formed around Morazán. The centenary of his birth in 1892 was celebrated across the region.
Several historians who wrote biographies of Morazán praised him for exhibiting abundant leadership qualities. According to Federal Research Division editor Tim L. Merril, Morazán was nicknamed the "George Washington of Central America". Morazán has been similarly compared to other historical figures such as Simón Bolívar, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
Portrayal in media
With his death, the nation lost a man described by José Martí as "a powerful genius, a strategist, a speaker, a true statesman, perhaps the only one Central America has ever produced".
The first recorded play in Salvadoran history is The Tragedy of Morazán (1852) by playwright Francisco Díaz that dramatizes Morazán's life. The Cultural Institute in Honduras was inaugurated with a performance of the 1916 play The Conspirators, also about Morazán. In 1950, Chilean poet Pablo Neruda wrote a poem dedicated to Morazán in his book Canto General.
Political appropriations
Several attempts were made to reunite Central America throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many reunification efforts invoked Morazán's memory to promote regional unionism. No attempt was successful. Beginning in the 1930s, the militaries across Central America began appropriating Morazán's image to legitimize their military dictatorships. Central American governments continued this appropriation during World War II and promoted a sort of warrior myth about Morazán at the centenary of his death in 1942.
Honduran leftist militant groups such as the Morazanist Patriotic Front (FPM) and the Morazanist Front for the Liberation of Honduras (FMLH) were named after Morazán. The National Popular Resistance Front (FNRP) depicts Morazán on its flag.
Commemoration
Statues of Morazán were erected in San Salvador in 1882 and Tegucigalpa in 1883. The Morazán Park opened in San José in 1888. In 1942, the Honduran government named Morazán as the "Father of the Nation". The Salvadoran government had similarly declared Morazán to be the "Benefactor of the Fatherland" in 1834.
Morazán is the namesake of various locations. On 6 March 1829, Morazán himself renamed the village of San Miguel, located in the El Tejar municipality of Guatemala, to San Miguel Morazán to commemorate a battle he won there. In 1887, the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador renamed the Gotera Department to the Morazán Department in his honor. In 1943, the Honduran government renamed the Tegucigalpa Department to the Francisco Morazán Department. The Central American localities of Morazán, Honduras; Morazán, Guatemala; Puerto Morazán, Nicaragua; and San Francisco Morazán, El Salvador are all named after the Honduran leader.
Both Honduras and El Salvador have state orders named after Morazán; the was established in 1941 and the Salvadoran order in 2021. The Central American Integration System (SICA) also has an order named after Morazán that was established by 2007. Morazán and the Battle of La Trinidad are featured on the Honduran 5 lempira banknote and Morazán was previously featured on coinage of the Salvadoran colón.
Morazán's home in Tegucigalpa has been converted into a museum named "Casa Morazán" that displays over 600 objects related to Morazán's life.
See also
- Anolis morazani, a species of lizard native to Honduras named after Morazán
- List of heads of state and government who were sentenced to death
- List of heads of state and government with a military background
- List of state leaders who have been in exile
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Books
Journal articles
Web sources
Further reading
;Biographies
;Related history