Forensic anthropology is the application of the anatomical science of anthropology and its various subfields, including forensic archaeology and forensic taphonomy, On average, male teeth are slightly larger than female teeth, with the greatest difference observed in the canine teeth. Examination of internal dental tissues has also shown that male teeth consist of absolutely and proportionately greater quantities of dentine than females. Such differences in dental tissue proportions could also be useful in sex determination.

Determination of stature

The estimation of stature by anthropologists is based on a series of formulas that have been developed over time by the examination of multiple different skeletons from a multitude of different regions and backgrounds. There are two major approaches for estimating stature, the mathenatical method and the anatomical method. The mathematical method uses the mesurements of skeletal element and regression equations or maximum likelihood equaitons.Stature is given as a range of possible values, in centimeters, and typically computed by measuring the bones of the leg, since they are the ones that best correlate with the total height of an individual. The three bones that are used are the femur, the tibia, and the fibula. The formulas that are used to determine stature rely on various information regarding the individual. Sex, ancestry, and age should be determined before attempting to ascertain height, if possible. This is due to the differences that occur between populations, sexes, and age groups.

Determination of age

The determination of an individual's age by anthropologists depends on whether or not the individual was an adult or a child. The determination of the age of children, under the age of 21, is usually performed by examining the teeth. Younger adults have fewer and larger osteons while older adults have smaller and more osteon fragments.

There are also several factors that can alter the state of a bone and its preservation. These include taphonomy and postmortem events. Age estimation relies on the skeletal elements available for analysis, and some bones are more resilient than others, resulting in different levels of preservation. Experimental trials show that the bone more frequently surviving taphonomic conditions is both the auricular surface and acetabulum when compared to other skeletal areas. The lowest yielding method to survive harsh conditions is the iscan method with examines the fourth rib of an individual.

Age estimation of living individuals

Age estimation of living individuals is carried out by estimating the biological age when the chronological age of the individual is unknown or uncertain because of the lack of valid identity documents. It is used to confirm if an individual has reached a specific age threshold in cases of criminal liability, asylum seekers and unaccompanied children, human trafficking, adoption, and competitive sports. Guidelines by the Study Group on Forensic Age Diagnostics (Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forensische Altersdiagnostik, AGFAD), propose that a three-step procedure should be followed for the age estimation: the first step is a physical examination; the second step include the assessment of the hand/wrist development using plain radiographs; the third step is a dental assessment. One of the most used methodologies for the estimation of age from the development of the hand and wrist is the Greulich and Pyle Atlas, whilst to assess dental development the most common method used so far is the 8-teeth technique developed by Demirjian et al.. Where the estimated age of the individual might be above 18 years of age, it is possible to use the development of the medial end of the clavicle. Traditionally, those undertaking age estimation in the living, adopt imaging techniques such as plain radiographies and CT scans to carry out the age estimation, however, lately, due to ethical issues surrounding the use of ionising medical imaging modalities for non-medical purposes (e.g., forensic purposes), magnetic resonance imaging, a radiation free medical imaging modality, is being investigated to develop new methodologies to estimate the age of living individuals.

The pubis symphysis displays consistent observable degenerative changes throughout the course of life, making it a reliable marker for age estimation. Using 3D reconstruction of computes tomography (CT) scans, the pubis symphysis can be examined to estimate the age of a living individual. The Suchey-Brooks method, which looks at morphological changes in the pubic symphysis, was show through experimental trials that it captures the true age of the patient 79.5 percent of the time. Each misclassification was due to underestimations of age, and it was more common to capture the true age of females then males.

Determination of ancestry

The estimation of individuals' ancestry is typically grouped into three groups. However, the use of these classifications is becoming much harder as the rate of interancestrial marriages increases. Research presented at the 2012 Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists concluded that ForDisc ancestry determination was not always consistent, and that the program should be used with caution.

Other markers

Anthropologists are also able to see other markers present on the bones. Past fractures will be evident by the presence of bone remodeling but only for a certain amount of time. After around seven years, bone remodelling should make the presence of a fracture impossible to see. The examination of any fractures on the bones can potentially help determine the type of trauma they may have experienced. Cause of death is not determined by the forensic anthropologist, as they are not qualified to do so. However, they are able to determine the type of trauma experienced such as gun shot wound, blunt force, sharp force, or a mixture thereof. It is also possible to determine if a fracture occurred ante-mortem (before death), peri-mortem (at the time of death), or post-mortem (after death). Ante-mortem fractures will show signs of healing (depending on how long before death the fracture occurred) while peri- and post-mortem fractures will not. Peri-mortem fractures can incorporate quite a large range of time, as ante-mortem trauma that is unrelated directly to death may not have had time to begin the healing process. Peri-mortem fractures will usually appear clean with rounded margins and equal discolouration after death, while post-mortem breaks will appear brittle.

Forensic archaeologists employ their knowledge of proper excavation techniques to ensure that remains are recovered in a controlled and forensically acceptable manner. In addition to remains, archaeologists are trained to look for objects contained in and around the excavation area. These objects can include anything from wedding rings to potentially probative evidence such as cigarette butts or shoe prints. A forensic archaeologist must also be able to utilize a degree of creativity and adaptability during times when crime scenes can not be excavated using traditional archaeological techniques. For example, one particular case study was conducted on the search and recovery of the remains of a missing girl who was found in a septic tank underground. This instance required unique methods unlike those of a typical archeological excavation in order to exhume and preserve the contents of the tank. Research conducted to improve archaeological field methods, particularly to advance nondestructive methods of search and recovery are also important for the advancement and recognition of the field.

There is an ethical component that must be considered. The capability to uncover information about victims of war crimes or homicide may present a conflict in cases that involve competing interests. Forensic archaeologists are often contracted to assist with the processing of mass graves by larger organisations that have motives related to exposure and prosecution rather than providing peace of mind to families and communities. These projects are at times opposed by smaller, human rights groups who wish to avoid overshadowing memories of the individuals with their violent manner(s) of death. In cases like these, forensic archaeologists must practice caution and recognize the implications behind their work and the information they uncover.

Forensic taphonomy

thumb|right|The examination of remains can help build a peri- and post-mortem profile of the individual.The examination of skeletal remains often takes into account environmental factors that affect decomposition. Forensic taphonomy is the study of these postmortem changes to human remains caused by soil, water, and the interaction with plants, insects, and other animals.

In addition to the evidentiary guidelines forensic anthropologists should always keep in mind that the remains they are working with were once a person. If possible, local customs regarding dealing with the dead should be observed and all remains should be treated with respect and dignity.

Notable forensic anthropologists

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| Sue Black|| Founding member of the British Association for Human Identification. Former Director of the Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification and the Leverhulme Centre for Forensic Science at the University of Dundee. President of St John's College, Oxford. She has worked in Kosovo, Grenada, Sierra Leone, Iraq, and as part of the response to the Indian Ocean tsunami. ||

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|Kathy Reichs

|Forensic anthropologist and author. Created the fictional character Dr. Temperance Brennan, and the inspiration for the TV series Bones.

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See also

References

  • University of Bournemouth
  • University of Edinburgh
  • University of Dundee
  • American Board of Forensic Anthropology
  • American Academy of Forensic Sciences
  • American Association of Physical Anthropologists
  • Maples Center for Forensic Medicine at the University of Florida
  • Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation
  • ForensicAnth.com – Forensic anthropological news stories from across the globe
  • The Why Files: Bodies and Bones
  • Struers replica technique for forensic investigation
  • The Forensic Anthropology Forum – forensic anthropology news and continuing education
  • Forensic Anthropology – Theoretical and Practical Information
  • Forensic Anthropology Summer Camp – Experience
  • Osteointeractive – Forensic Anthropology Blog