Eadweard Muybridge

thumb|Galloping horse, animated using photos by Muybridge (1887)

Eadweard Muybridge ( ; 9 April 1830 – 8 May 1904, born Edward James Muggeridge) was an English photographer known for his pioneering work in photographic studies of motion, and early work in motion-picture projection.

He adopted the first name "Eadweard" as the original Anglo-Saxon form of "Edward", and the surname "Muybridge", believing it to be similarly archaic. A photographer in the 19th century American West, he photographed Yosemite, San Francisco, the newly acquired Alaskan Territory, subjects involved in the Modoc War, and lighthouses on the West Coast. He also made his early moving picture studies in California.

Born in Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, England, at the age of 20 he emigrated to the United States as a bookseller, first to New York City and then to San Francisco. In 1860, he planned a return trip to Europe, but suffered serious head injuries en route in a stagecoach crash in Texas. From 1883 to 1886, he entered a very productive period at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, producing over 100,000 images of animals and humans in motion, occasionally capturing what the human eye could not distinguish as separate moments in time.

In his later years, Muybridge gave many public lectures and demonstrations of his photography and early motion picture sequences, travelling frequently in England and Europe to publicise his work in cities such as London and Paris.

While travelling in 1875 on a photography expedition in the Spanish-speaking nations of Central America, the photographer advertised his works under the name "Eduardo Santiago Muybridge" in Guatemala.

After an 1882 trip to England, he changed the spelling of his first name to "Eadweard", the Old English form of his name. The spelling was probably derived from the spelling of King Edward's Christian name as shown on the plinth of the Kingston coronation stone, which had been re-erected in 1850 in Muybridge's hometown, 100 yards from his childhood family home. He used "Eadweard Muybridge" for the rest of his career.

Others frequently misspelled his surname as "Maybridge", "Moybridge", or "Mybridge".

1830–1850: early life and family

thumb|Muybridge's childhood home in Kingston upon Thames

Edward James Muggeridge was born in Kingston upon Thames, in the county of Surrey in England (now Greater London), on 9 April 1830 to John and Susanna Muggeridge; he had three brothers. His father was a grain and coal merchant, with business spaces on the ground floor of their house adjacent to the River Thames at No. 30 High Street. The family lived in the rooms above. After his father died in 1843, his mother carried on the business.

His younger cousins Norman Selfe (1839–1911) and Maybanke Anderson (née Selfe; 1845–1927), also spent part of their childhood in Kingston upon Thames. They moved to Australia and Norman, following a family tradition, became a renowned engineer while Maybanke made fame as a suffragette.

His paternal great-grandparents were Robert Muggeridge and Hannah Charman, who owned a farm. Their oldest son John Muggeridge (1756–1819) was Edward's grandfather; he was a stationer who taught Edward the business. Several uncles and cousins, including Henry Muggeridge (Sheriff of London), were corn merchants in the City of London. All were born in Banstead, Surrey. Edward's younger brother George, born in 1833, lived with their uncle Samuel in 1851, after the death of their father in 1843.

1850–1860: bookselling in America

At the age of 20, Muybridge decided to seek his fortune. He turned down an offer of money from his grandmother, saying "No, thank you Grandma, I'm going to make a name for myself. If I fail, you will never hear of me again." Muybridge immigrated to the United States, arriving in New York City in 1852. Here, he was possibly a partner in the book business enterprise Muygridge & Bartlett together with a medical student, which existed for about a year. He spent his first years importing and selling books from the UK, and became familiar with early photography through his acquaintance with New York daguerreotypist Silas T. Selleck. and was registered there as a book agent by April.

Muybridge probably arrived in California around the autumn of 1855, when it had been a state for barely more than five years. He visited the new state capital, Sacramento, as an agent selling illustrated Shakespeare books in April 1856, and soon after settled at 113 Montgomery Street in San Francisco. From this address he sold books and art (mostly prints), in a city that was still the booming "capital of the Gold Rush" in the "Wild West". There were already 40 bookstores and a dozen photography studios in town, and he even shared his address with a photo gallery, right next to another bookstore. He partnered with W.H. Oakes as an engraver and publisher of lithograph prints, and still functioned as a book agent for the London Printing and Publishing Company.

In April 1858, Muybridge moved his store to 163 Clay Street, where his friend Silas Selleck now had a photo gallery. In 1859, he was elected as one of the directors for the San Francisco Mercantile Library Association.

Muybridge sold original landscape photography by Carleton Watkins, as well as photographic copies of paintings. It remains uncertain whether or not Muygridge personally made such copies, or familiarized himself with photographic techniques in any fashion before 1860, although Muybridge claimed in 1881 that he "came to California in 1855, and most of the time since and all of the time since 1860 (...) had been diligently, and at the same time studiously, been engaged in photography".

Edward's brother George Muybridge came to San Francisco in 1858 but died of tuberculosis soon after. Their youngest brother Thomas S. Muygridge arrived in 1859, and it soon became clear that Edward planned to stop operating his bookstore business.

Arthur P. Shimamura, an experimental psychologist at the University of California, Berkeley, has speculated that Muybridge suffered substantial injuries to the orbitofrontal cortex that probably also extended into the anterior temporal lobes, which may have led to some of the emotional, eccentric behaviour reported by friends in later years, as well as freeing his creativity from conventional social inhibitions. Today, there is still little effective treatment for this kind of injury.

Muybridge was treated at Fort Smith for three weeks before he went to a doctor in New York City. He fled the noise of the city and stayed in the countryside. He then went back to New York for six weeks and sued the stage company, which earned him a $2,500 compensation. Eventually, he felt well enough to travel to England, where he received medical care from Sir William Gull (who would become Physician-in-Ordinary to Queen Victoria), and was prescribed abstinence of meat, alcohol, and coffee for over a year. Gull also recommended rest and outdoor activities, and considering a change in profession. Muybridge later stated that he had become a photographer at the suggestion of Gull.

On 28 September 1860, "E. Muggeridge, of New York" applied for British patent no. 2352 for "An improved method of, and apparatus for, plate printing" via London solicitor August Frederick Sheppard.

On 1 August 1861, Muybridge received British patent no. 1914 for "Improvements in machinery or apparatus for washing clothes and other textile articles". On 28 October, the French version of this patent was registered. He wrote a letter to his uncle Henry, who had immigrated to Sydney (Australia), with details of the patents and mentioned having to visit Europe for business for several months. Muybridge's inventions (or rather improved machinery) were demonstrated at the 1862 International Exhibition.

1867–1873: Helios, photographer of the American West

thumb|upright=1.25|Photo of [[Vernal Fall at Yosemite by Eadweard Muybridge, 1872]]

Muybridge returned to San Francisco on 13 February 1867 a changed man. Friends and associates later stated that he had changed from a smart and pleasant businessman into an eccentric artist.

Muybridge constantly tinkered with his cameras and chemicals, trying to improve the sales appeal of his pictures. In 1869, he patented a "sky shade" to reduce the tendency of intense blue sky light to bleach out the images of the blue-sensitive photographic emulsions of the time.

San Francisco views

thumb|One of a series of Muybridge photos documenting the construction of the [[San Francisco Mint]]

Helios produced over 400 different stereograph cards, initially sold through Seleck's Cosmopolitan Gallery at 415 Montgomery Street, and later through other distributors, such as Bradley & Rulofson. Many of these cards showed views of San Francisco and its surroundings.

Muybridge photographed ruins after the 21 October 1868 Hayward earthquake. These images may have attracted the attention of Leland Stanford, who would later hire Muybridge to develop an unprecedented series of photos spaced in time.

Yosemite

thumb|upright|Albumen silver print photograph of Muybridge in 1872 at base of the Ulysses S. Grant tree "71 Feet in Circumference" in the [[Mariposa Grove, Yosemite, by Carleton Watkins]]

From June to November 1867, Muybridge visited Yosemite Valley. He took enormous safety risks to make his photographs, using a heavy view camera and stacks of glass plate negatives. A stereograph he published in 1872 shows him sitting casually on a projecting rock over the Yosemite Valley, with of empty space below him. Twenty original photographs (possibly the same) were used to illustrate John S. Hittel's guide book Yosemite: Its Wonders and Its Beauties (1868).

Some of the pictures were taken of the same scenes shot by his contemporary Carleton Watkins. Muybridge's photographs showed the grandeur and expansiveness of the West; if human figures were portrayed, they were dwarfed by their surroundings, as in Chinese landscape paintings. In comparing the styles of the two photographers, Watkins has been called "a classicist, making serene, stately pictures of a still, eternal world of beauty", while Muybridge was "a romantic who sought out the uncanny, the unsettling, the uncertain".

Lighthouses of the West Coast

In 1871, the United States Lighthouse Board hired Muybridge to photograph lighthouses of the American West Coast. From March to July, he travelled aboard the Lighthouse Tender Shubrick to document these structures.

Modoc War

In 1873, Muybridge was commissioned by the US Army to photograph the "Modoc War" dispute with the Native American tribe in northern California and Oregon.

File:Cooking eggs at the Witches' Cauldron, by Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904.jpg|Cooking eggs at the Witches' Cauldron (c. 1867–1871)

File:Bay Shore, San Quentin, by Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904.png|Bay Shore, San Quentin (c. 1867–1874)

File:Alaska Ter. - Sitka from Japanese Island, by Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904.jpg|Sitka from Japanese Island (1868)

File:Alaska Ter. - Fort Tongass. Group of Indians, by Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904.jpg|Fort Tongass, Group of Indians (1868)

File:South Farallon Island, Sea Lions in Main Top Bay, by Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904.png|South Farallon Island, Sea Lions in Main Top Bay (c. 1867–1872)

File:Mosquito Fall, by Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904.jpg|Mosquito Fall (c. 1868–1873)

File:Paiute Chief's Lodge, by Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904.jpg|Paiute Chief's Lodge (c. 1870)

File:A Modoc Warrior on the War Path (15980282246).jpg|A Modoc Warrior on the War Path (1873)

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1872–1879: Stanford and horse gaits

thumb|Muybridge's The Horse in Motion, 1878

thumb|Animated gif from frame 1 to 11 of The Horse in Motion. "Sallie Gardner", owned by Leland Stanford, running at a 1:40 pace over the Palo Alto track, 19 June 1878.

In 1872, the former governor of California, Leland Stanford, a businessman and race-horse owner, hired Muybridge for a portfolio depicting his mansion and other possessions, including his racehorse Occident.

Stanford also wanted a proper picture of the horse at full speed, and was frustrated that the existing depictions and descriptions seemed incorrect. The human eye could not fully break down the action at the quick gaits of the trot and gallop. Up until this time, most artists painted horses at a trot with one foot always on the ground; and at a full gallop with the front legs extended forward and the hind legs extended to the rear, and all feet off the ground. There are stories that Stanford had made a $25,000 bet on his theories about horse locomotion, but no evidence has been found of such a wager. However, it has been estimated that Stanford spent a total of $50,000 over the next several years to fund his investigations. The news of this success was reported worldwide.

In July 1877, Muybridge made a new picture of Occident at full speed, with improved techniques and a much clearer result. To enhance the still-fuzzy picture, he had it recreated by a retouch artist and published as a cabinet card. The news about this breakthrough in instantaneous photography was spread enthusiastically, but several critics believed that the heavily-manipulated image could not be a truthful depiction of the horse. Muybridge allowed reporters to study the original negative, but as he and Stanford were planning a new project that would convince everyone, they saw no need to prove that this image was authentic. Newspapers were not yet able to reproduce detailed photographs, so the images were widely printed as woodcut engravings.

In 1879, Muybridge continued with additional studies using 24 cameras, and published a very limited edition portfolio of the results.

Muybridge had images from his motion studies hand-copied in the form of silhouettes or line drawings onto a disc, to be viewed in the machine he had invented, which he called a "zoopraxiscope". Later, his more-detailed images were hand-coloured and marketed commercially. A device he developed was later regarded as an early movie projector, and the process was an intermediate stage toward motion pictures or cinematography.

1878: San Francisco panorama

In 1878, Muybridge made a notable 13-part 360° photographic panorama of San Francisco. He presented a copy to the wife of Leland Stanford. Today, it can be viewed on the Internet as a seamlessly-spliced panorama, or as a QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR) panorama.

That same year, he applied for a patent on a camera sequence shutter to photograph moving objects, with a mechanical trigger. Later that year, he applied for a further patent, this time using an electrical trigger. The differences in their tastes and temperaments were understood to have been due to their age difference. Muybridge did not care for many of the amusements that she sought, so she went to the theatre and other attractions without him, and he seemed to be fine with that. Muybridge was more of the type that would stay up all night to read classics. and shot him at point-blank range. Larkyns died that night, and Muybridge was arrested without protest and put in the Napa jail.

A Sacramento Daily Union reporter visited Muybridge in jail for an hour and related how he was coping with the situation. Muybridge was in moderately good spirits and very hopeful. He felt he was treated very kindly by the officers and was a little proud of the influence he had on other inmates, which had earned him everyone's respect. He had protested the abuse of a "Chinaman" from a tough inmate, by claiming "No man of any country whose misfortunes shall bring him here shall be abused in my presence" and had strongly but politely voiced threats against the offender. He had addressed an outburst of profanity in a similar fashion.

Flora filed for divorce on 17 December 1874 on the grounds of extreme cruelty, but this first petition was dismissed. It was reported that she fully sympathized with the prosecution of her husband.

Muybridge was tried for murder in February 1875. His attorney, W. W. Pendegast (a friend of Stanford), pleaded insanity in his behalf due to the severe head injury he suffered in his 1860 stagecoach accident. At least four long-time acquaintances testified under oath that the accident had dramatically changed Muybridge's personality, from genial and pleasant to unstable and erratic. He displayed his photographs on screen and showed moving pictures projected by his zoopraxiscope. Stillman used Muybridge's photos as the basis for his 100 illustrations, and the photographer's research for the analysis, but he gave Muybridge no prominent credit. The historian Phillip Prodger later suggested that Stanford considered Muybridge as just one of his employees, and not deserving of special recognition. Stanford was quite proud of his role in creating the book, and commissioned a portrait of himself by Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, in which a copy of the volume was visible under his arm.

However, as a result of Muybridge not being credited in the book, the Royal Society of Arts withdrew an offer to fund his stop-motion studies in photography, and refused to publish a paper he had submitted, accusing him of plagiarism.

In 1883, Muybridge gave a lecture at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (PAFA), arranged by artist Thomas Eakins and University of Pennsylvania trustee Fairman Rogers.

The vast majority of Muybridge's work at this time was done at a special sunlit outdoor studio, due to the still-bulky cameras and relatively slow photographic emulsion speeds then available. Most of the photographs were taken during the summers, and winters were spent developing and organizing the images.

File:Boys playing Leapfrog.jpg|Original collotype

File:Eadweard Muybridge Boys playing Leapfrog (1883–86, printed 1887) animated A.gif|Side view

File:Eadweard Muybridge Boys playing Leapfrog (1883–86, printed 1887) animated F.gif|Front view

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File:Nude woman brings a cup of tea; another takes the cup and drinks (rbm-QP301M8-1887-451).jpg|Original collotype

File:Animated - Nude woman brings a cup of tea; another takes the cup and drinks - view 1.gif|Front view

File:Animated - Nude woman brings a cup of tea; another takes the cup and drinks - view 2.gif|Alternative view

</gallery>

In 1888, the University of Pennsylvania donated an album of Muybridge's photographs, which featured students and Philadelphia Zoo animals, to the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Abdul Hamid II, who had a keen interest in photography. This gift may have helped to secure permissions for the excavations that scholars from the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology later pursued in the Ottoman region of Mesopotamia (now Iraq), notably at the site of Nippur. The Ottoman sultan reciprocated, five years later, by sending as a gift to the United States a collection of photograph albums featuring Ottoman scenes: the Library of Congress now preserves these albums as the Abdul Hamid II Collection.

Recent scholarship has noted that in his later work, Muybridge was influenced by, and in turn, influenced the French photographer Étienne-Jules Marey. In 1881, Muybridge first visited Marey's studio in France and viewed stop-motion studies before returning to the US to further his own work in the same area. Marey was a pioneer in producing multiple-exposure, sequential images using a rotary shutter in his so-called "Marey wheel" camera.

While Marey's scientific achievements in the realms of cardiology and aerodynamics (as well as pioneering work in photography and chronophotography) are indisputable, Muybridge's efforts were to some degree more artistic rather than scientific. As Muybridge explained, in some of his published sequences he had substituted images where original exposures had failed, in order to illustrate a representative movement (rather than producing a strictly scientific recording of a particular sequence).

Today, similar setups of carefully timed multiple cameras are used in modern special effects photography, but they have the opposite goal of capturing changing camera angles, with little or no movement of the subject. This is often dubbed "bullet time" photography.

After his work at the University of Pennsylvania, Muybridge travelled widely and gave numerous lectures and demonstrations of his still photography and primitive motion picture sequences. At the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, Muybridge presented a series of lectures on the "Science of Animal Locomotion" in the Zoopraxographical Hall, built specially for that purpose in the "Midway Plaisance" arm of the exposition. He used his zoopraxiscope to show his moving pictures to a paying public. The Hall was the first commercial movie theatre. Many of his papers and collected artefacts were donated to Kingston Library, and are currently under the ownership of Kingston Museum in his place of birth.

Influence on others

According to an exhibition at Tate Britain, "His influence has forever changed our understanding and interpretation of the world, and can be found in many diverse fields, from Marcel Duchamp's painting Nude Descending a Staircase and countless works by Francis Bacon, to the blockbuster film The Matrix and Philip Glass's opera The Photographer".

In 2010, the American painter Philip Pearlstein published an article in ARTnews suggesting the strong influences Muybridge's work and public lectures had on 20th-century artists, including Edgar Degas, Auguste Rodin, Georges Seurat, Marcel Duchamp, and Thomas Eakins, either directly or through the contemporaneous work of his fellow photographic pioneer, Marey.

Sol LeWitt — a modern American artist inspired by Muybridge's serial investigations, LeWitt explicitly paid homage to the photographer in Muybridge I and II (1964).
Diller Scofidio + Renfro — EJM 1:Man Walking at Ordinary Speed and EJM2:Interia (1998), a two-part multimedia dance work with Charleroi/Danses and the Ballet Opera of Lyon, was inspired by motion photography experiments of two photographer-scientists: Eadweard Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey.
John Gaeta — used the principles of Muybridge photography to create the bullet time slow-motion technique of the 1999 movie The Matrix.
Steven Pippin — so-called Young British Artist who in 1999 converted a row of self-service laundry washing machines into sequential cameras in the style of Muybridge.
Wayne McGregor — in 2011 UK choreographer collaborated with composer Mark-Anthony Turnage and artist Mark Wallinger on a piece titled Undance, inspired by Muybridge's "action verbs".

Exhibitions and collections

thumb|Patent model of one of Muybridge's machines for photographing objects in motion, 1879

Muybridge bequeathed a selection of his equipment to Kingston Museum in Greater London. This includes his original biunial slide lantern, a zoopraxiscope projector, over 2,000 glass magic lantern slides and 67 zoopraxiscope discs. The University of Pennsylvania Archives in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, hold a large collection of Muybridge's photographs, equipment, and correspondence. Among these artefacts are 740 of the 781 original glass plate negatives used for publication of his masterwork edition. The Stanford University Libraries and the Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts at Stanford University also maintain a large collection of Muybridge's photographs, glass plate negatives, and some equipment including a functioning zoopraxiscope.

In 1991, the Addison Gallery of American Art at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, hosted a major exhibition of Muybridge's work, plus the works of many other artists who had been influenced by him. The show later travelled to other venues and a book-length exhibition catalogue was also published. The Addison Gallery has significant holdings of Muybridge's photographic work.

In 1993, the Canadian Centre for Architecture presented the exhibition Eadweard Muybridge and the Photographic Panorama of San Francisco, 1850–1880.

In 2000–2001, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History presented the exhibition Freeze Frame: Eadweard Muybridge's Photography of Motion, plus an online virtual exhibit.

From 10 April to 18 July 2010, the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., mounted a major retrospective of Muybridge's work titled Helios: Eadweard Muybridge in a Time of Change. The exhibit received favourable reviews from major publications including The New York Times. The exhibition travelled in autumn 2010 to Tate Britain, Millbank, London, and also appeared at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA).

An exhibition of important items bequeathed by Muybridge to his birthplace of Kingston upon Thames, titled Muybridge Revolutions, opened at the Kingston Museum on 18 September 2010 (exactly a century since the first Muybridge exhibition at the Museum) and ran until 12 February 2011. The full collection is held by the Museum and Archives.

Legacy and representation in other media

thumb|Eadweard Muybridge statue at the [[Letterman Digital Arts Center in the Presidio of San Francisco]]

Muybridge's influence extended to many artists and beyond, including efficiency expert Frank Gilbreth, entrepreneur Walt Disney, Nobel-Prize chemist Ahmed Zewail, and the International Society of Biomechanics.

Many of Muybridge's photographic sequences have been published since the 1950s as artists' reference books. Cartoon animators often use his photos as a reference when drawing their characters in motion.
In the 1964 television series hosted by Ronald Reagan, Death Valley Days, Hedley Mattingly was cast as Muybridge in the episode "The $25,000 Wager". In the story line, Muybridge invents the zoopraxiscope for his patron, former Governor Leland Stanford (Harry Holcombe), a race-horse owner. Muybridge's assignment is to determine by the use of multiple cameras whether all four hooves of a horse are briefly off the ground while trotting. Diane Brewster was cast as Muybridge's wife, the former Flora Stone, who was twenty-one years his junior (half his age).
Jim Morrison makes a reference to Muybridge in his poetry book The Lords (1969), suggesting that "Muybridge derived his animal subjects from the Philadelphia Zoological Garden, male performers from the University".
The filmmaker Thom Andersen made a 1974 documentary titled Eadweard Muybridge, Zoopraxographer, describing his life and work.
The composer Philip Glass's opera The Photographer (1982) is based on Muybridge's murder trial, with a libretto including text from the court transcript.
Muybridge is a central figure in John Edgar Wideman's 1987 novel Reuben.
Muybridge's work figures prominently in Laird Barron's tale of Lovecraftian horror, "Hand of Glory".
Since 1991, the company Optical Toys has published Muybridge sequences in the form of movie flip books.
In 1993, the music video for U2's "Lemon", directed by Mark Neale, was filmed in black and white with a grid-like background as a tribute to Eadweard Muybridge.
The play Studies in Motion: The Hauntings of Eadweard Muybridge (2006) was a co-production between Vancouver's Electric Company Theatre and the University of British Columbia Theatre. While blending fiction with fact, it conveys Muybridge's obsession with cataloguing animal motion. The production started touring in 2010. In 2015, it would be adapted into a feature film.
The Canadian poet Rob Winger wrote Muybridge's Horse: A Poem in Three Phases (2007). The long poem won the CBC Literary Award for Poetry and was nominated for the Governor General's Award for Literature, the Trillium Book Award for Poetry, and the Ottawa Book Award. It expressed his life and obsessions in a "poetic-photographic" style.
A 17-minute documentary about Muybridge, directed by Juho Gartz, was made in 2007 and was awarded "Best Documentary" in the Helsinki film Festival "Kettupäivät" the following year.
To accompany the 2010 Tate exhibition, the BBC commissioned a TV programme, "The Weird World of Eadweard Muybridge", as part of Imagine, the arts series presented by Alan Yentob.
A short animated film titled Muybridge's Strings by Kōji Yamamura was released in 2011.
On 9 April 2012, the 182nd anniversary of his birth, a Google Doodle honoured Muybridge with an animation based on the photographs of the horse in motion.
Writer Josh Epstein and director Kyle Rideout made the 2015 feature film Eadweard, starring Michael Eklund and Sara Canning. The film tells the story of Muybridge's motion experiments, social reactions to the morality of photographing nude figures in motion, work with sanitarium patients, and (fictional) death in a duel.
Muybridge appears as a character in Brian Catling's 2012 novel, The Vorrh, where events from his life are blended into the fantasy narrative.
Czech theatre company Laterna Magika introduced an original play based on Muybridge's life in 2014. The play follows his life and combines dancing and speech with multimedia created from Muybridge's works.
Five frames depicting Annie G, a horse photographed by Muybridge, were encoded in bacteria's DNA using CRISPR genetic technology in 2017, 90% of which proved recoverable.
In her book River of Shadows, Rebecca Solnit tells Muybridge's story in an exploration of what it was about 19th-century California that enabled it to become a centre of cultural and technological innovation.
Exposing Muybridge (2021) is a documentary film biography that specifically highlights Muybridge's use of image manipulation and "photographic truth" throughout his career.
The First Film (2015) references Muybridge in discussion of early cinema leading to the work of Louis Le Prince.
Muybridge and his Animal Locomotion collection are mentioned in the 2022 film Nope. Emerald "Em" Haywood claims that the jockey riding the horse in those photographs was one of her ancestors.
The interactions of Muybridge and Larkyn are briefly presented in the first episode of the ZDF's documentary series Time: A Journey Through Thousands of Years

References

Sources

thumb|Title page of the first edition of Descriptive Zoopraxography

Muybridge's Complete Human and Animal Locomotion, Vol. I: All 781 Plates from the 1887 "Animal Locomotion" (1979) Dover Publications

External links

Time Stands Still, exhibit on Eadweard Muybridge and contemporaries, February–May 2003, Cantor Center, Stanford University
Eadweard Muybridge's Animal Locomotion, via Boston Public Library's Flickr collections
Eadweard Muybridge Flickr album by Kingston Heritage Service
The Eadweard Muybridge Online Archive, access to most of Muybridge's motion studies, at printable resolutions, along with a growing number of animations.
Tesseract, 20-Min experimental film expressing Eadweard Muybridge's obsession with time and its images at the turn of the century.
Eadweard Muybridge, Valley of the Yosemite, Sierra Nevada Mountains, and Mariposa Grove of Mammoth Trees, 1872, finding aid and online photo collection, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
Eadweard Muybridge, Stereographic Views of San Francisco Bay Area Locations, c. 1865–c. 1879, finding aid and online photo collection, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
Era of exploration : the rise of landscape photography in the American West, 1860–1885, fully digitized text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries
Muybridge, 1872, Yosemite American Indian Life, The Hive
"The Muybridge Collection", Kingston Museum, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey
Muybridge's 11-volume Animal Locomotion Studies and similar publications by E.-J. Marey, The University of South Florida Tampa Library's Special Collections Department
Freezing Time, Film Website, the life of Muybridge, directed by Andy Serkis and written by Keith Stern
Eadweard Muybridge stereoscopic photographs of the Modoc War , via Calisphere, California Digital Library, University of California, Berkeley
Human and Animal Locomotion, via SC Digital Library, University of Southern California.
Teacher's Guide: Eadweard Muybridge, Harold Edgerton, and Beyond: A Study of Motion and Time, 2-part introduction to the work of Muybridge and Edgerton, for high school level, Addison Gallery of American Art
David Levy, "Muybridge and the Movies", Early American Cinema
Carola Unterberger-Probst, Animation of the first moving pictures in film history, at Rhizome
Burns, Paul. The History of the Discovery of Cinematography: An Illustrated Chronology, Pre-cinema history
, extensive illustrated bibliography and links
Lone Mountain College Collection of Stereographs by Eadweard Muybridge, 1867–1880 at the Bancroft Library
Boston Athenæum: Central America Illustrated by Muybridge. Digital Collection.
Collections search for the Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts at Stanford University including the Cantor's Muybridge holdings
Brief chronology of Muybridge's life and works, from Muybridge Exposed

1830–1850: early life and family

1850–1860: bookselling in America

1867–1873: Helios, photographer of the American West

San Francisco views

Yosemite

Lighthouses of the West Coast

Modoc War

1872–1879: Stanford and horse gaits

1878: San Francisco panorama

Influence on others

Exhibitions and collections

Legacy and representation in other media

See also

References

Sources

External links