Dubai is the most populous city in the United Arab Emirates and the capital of the Emirate of Dubai. It is on a creek on the southeastern coast of the Persian Gulf. As of 2025, its population stands at 4 million<!-- This is for the Emirate, there are no sources for the city proper. -->, 92% of whom are expatriates. The wider urban area includes Sharjah and has a population of 5 million people as of 2023, while the Dubai–Sharjah–Ajman metropolitan area has a population of 6 million people.
Founded in the early 18th century as a pearling and fishing settlement, Dubai became a regional trade hub in the 20th century after declaring itself a free port (1901) and extending the Creek (1961). In 2018, oil production contributed less than 1% to the emirate's GDP.
Rapid construction since the 1990s has produced one of the world's densest skylines, including the world's tallest building, the Burj Khalifa. Extensive land-reclamation projects have added more than of artificial coastline. The city has a large real estate market, especially in the luxury segment.
Dubai's economy centres on trade, tourism, aviation, financial services, and real estate. The Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC) is one of the world's major financial centres. In 2024, Dubai was the seventh most-visited city globally. Dubai International Airport (DXB) is the world's busiest airport for international passenger traffic, handling over 92 million passengers in 2024.
Etymology
Many theories have been proposed about the origin of the word "Dubai". One theory suggests the word used to be the souq in Ba. The linguist Zana Vahidzadeh (Dana Pishdar) holds that the word comes from 'money', a reference to the prosperity of the trading centre or that the word refers to 'two brothers'—Deira and Bur Dubai.
The poet and scholar Ahmad Mohammad Obaid traces it to the same word, but to its alternative meaning of "baby locust" () due to the abundance of locusts in the area before settlement.
History
thumb|upright=0.47|left|Bronze and iron alloy dagger, [[Saruq Al Hadid archaeological site (1100 BC)]]
The history of human settlement in the area now defined as the United Arab Emirates is complex and extensive, formed by the extensive trading links between the civilisations of the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, and even by cultures as far afield as the Levant. Archaeological finds in the emirate of Dubai, particularly at Al-Ashoosh, Al Sufouh, and the notably rich trove from Saruq Al Hadid show settlement through the Ubaid and Hafit periods, the Umm Al Nar and Wadi Suq periods, and the three Iron Ages in the UAE. The area was known to the Sumerians as Magan and was a source of metallic goods, notably copper and bronze.
The area was covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coast retreated inland, becoming part of the city's present coastline. Pre-Islamic ceramics have been discovered from the 3rd and 4th centuries. After the spread of Islam in the region, the Umayyad Caliph of the eastern Islamic world conquered southeast Arabia and drove out the Sassanians. Excavations by the Dubai Museum in the region of Al-Jumayra (Jumeirah) found several artefacts from the Umayyad period.
An early mention of Dubai in 1095 is in the Book of Geography by the Andalusian-Arab geographer Abu Abdullah al-Bakri. The Venetian pearl merchant Gasparo Balbi visited the area in 1580 and mentioned Dubai (as Dibei) for its pearling industry. and was, by 1822, a town of some 700–800 members of the Bani Yas tribe and subject to the rule of Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi. In 1822, a British naval surveyor noted that Dubai was at that time populated by a thousand people living in an oval-shaped town surrounded by a mud wall, scattered with goats and camels. The main footpath out of the village led to a reedy creek, while another trailed off into the desert and merged into caravan routes.
In 1833, after tribal feuds, members of the Al Bu Falasah tribe seceded from Abu Dhabi and established themselves in Dubai. The exodus from Abu Dhabi was led by Obeid bin Saeed and Maktoum bin Butti, who became joint leaders of Dubai until Ubaid died in 1836, leaving Maktoum to establish the Maktoum dynasty. In 1896, fire broke out in Dubai, a disastrous occurrence in a town where many family homes were still constructed from barasti (palm fronds). The conflagration consumed half of Bur Dubai's houses, and the Deira district was said to have been destroyed. The next year, more fires broke out. An enslaved woman was caught in the act of starting one such blaze and was put to death.
thumb|upright|A watchtower in [[Bur Dubai, c. 19th century]]
In 1901, Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum established Dubai as a free port with no taxation on imports or exports, and also gave merchants parcels of land and guarantees of protection and tolerance. These policies led merchants not only to move directly from Lingeh, but also from those who had settled in Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah (which had historical links with Lingeh through the Al Qawasim tribe) to Dubai. An indicator of the growing importance of the port of Dubai is the movements of the steamer of the Bombay and Persia Steam Navigation Company, which from 1899 to 1901 paid five visits annually to Dubai. In 1902, the company's vessels made 21 visits to Dubai, and from 1904 on, the steamers called fortnightly, trading 70,000 tons of cargo in 1906. The frequency of these vessels only accelerated Dubai's role as an emerging port and trading hub of preference. Lorimer notes the transfer from Lingeh "bids fair to become complete and permanent", and also that the town had by 1906 supplanted Lingeh as the chief entrepôt of the Trucial States.
The "Great Storm" of 1908 struck the pearling boats of Dubai and the coastal emirates towards the end of the pearling season that year, resulting in the loss of a dozen boats and over 100 men. The disaster was a major setback for Dubai, with many families losing their breadwinners and merchants facing financial ruin. These losses came at a time when the tribes of the interior were also experiencing poverty. In a letter to the Sultan of Muscat in 1911, Butti laments, "Misery and poverty are raging among them, with the result that they are struggling, looting and killing among themselves."
In 1910, in the Hyacinth incident, the town was bombarded by , with 37 people killed.
Pre-oil Dubai
As well as expanding its regional trade links, Dubai was also an important regional centre for the collection, sale, and trade of pearls. The collapse of the pearling industry<!-- in what decade? --> plunged the city into a deep depression, and many residents lived in poverty or migrated to other parts of the Persian Gulf. Arbitration by the British government resulted in a cessation of hostilities.
Despite a lack of oil, Dubai's ruler from 1958, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, used revenue from trading activities to build infrastructure, initially through loans raised from local merchants and the ruler of Kuwait. Private companies were established to build and operate infrastructure, including electricity, telephone services, and both the ports and airport operators. An airport of sorts (a runway built on salt flats) was established in Dubai in the 1950s and in 1959, the emirate's first hotel, the Airlines Hotel, was constructed. This was followed by the Ambassador and Carlton Hotels in 1968.
Throughout the late 1950s, the British had urged Sheikh Rashid to approve a town plan to manage an already burgeoning real estate market. In 1959, through the correspondence of the British political agent, Sheikh Rashid invited architect John Harris to Dubai to discuss the parameters of a town plan. In May 1960, Harris returned to Dubai with the plan. Harris, who ran his own architectural practice, had only a matter of weeks to create the plan after receiving aerial photographs of the city that spring. No later than 1961, the British engineering firm Halcrow was marking the city's street system as shown on the plan and hardening designated routes with asphalt. The plan continued to function as a guide for further extensions of Dubai's street system as municipal funding became available. Harris's plan made only minimal proposals to disrupt the commercial and social life in the existing areas of Bur Dubai and Deira. Therefore, new development was proposed outside these areas, further inland from the Gulf. While the town plan of 1960 envisioned a very low-rise city that was not realised, its proposed road system was largely implemented as planned. Harris's firm acted independently of Halcrow, but the plan's accurate representation of ongoing land reclamation and the future Maktoum Bridge, which had not yet been proposed to the municipality, suggests that the two firms kept an open line of communication. The master plan's road system also served as a guide for the municipality in designating utility easements, as these became increasingly necessary.
In 1959, Dubai's first telephone company was established, with 51% owned by IAL (International Aeradio Ltd) and 49% by Sheikh Rashid and local businesspeople. In 1961, both the electricity and telephone companies rolled out operational networks. The water company (Rashid was chairman and majority shareholder) constructed a pipeline from wells at Awir and a series of storage tanks and, by 1968, Dubai had a reliable supply of piped water.
On 7 April 1961, the Dubai-based , a five-thousand-ton British-flagged vessel that plied the route between Basra (Iraq), Kuwait, and Bombay (Mumbai, India), was caught in unusually high winds off Dubai. Early the next morning, in heavy seas off Umm al-Quwain, an explosion tore out the second-class cabins and started fires. The captain gave the order to abandon ship, but two lifeboats capsized, and a second explosion occurred. A flotilla of small boats from Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, and Umm al-Quwain picked up survivors, but 238 of the 819 persons on board were lost in the disaster.
Construction of Dubai's first airport began on the northern edge of the town in 1959, and the terminal building opened for business in September 1960. The airport was initially serviced by Gulf Aviation (flying Dakotas, Herons, and Viscounts) but Iran Air commenced services to Shiraz in 1961.
Throughout the 1960s, Dubai was the centre of a lively gold trade, with 1968 imports of gold at some £56 million. This gold was, in the vast majority, re-exported – mainly to customers who took delivery in international waters off India. The import of gold to India had been banned, and so the trade was characterised as smuggling. However, Dubai's merchants were quick to point out that they were making legal gold deliveries and that it was up to the customer where they took it.
In 1966, more gold was shipped from London to Dubai than from almost anywhere else in the world (only France and Switzerland shipped more), totaling 4 million ounces. Dubai also took delivery of over $15 million worth of watches and over 5 million ounces of silver. The 1967 price of gold was $35 an ounce, but its market price in India was $68 an ounce – a healthy markup. Estimates at the time put the volume of gold imports from Dubai to India at around 75% of the total market.
Oil era
thumb|View of [[Business Bay]]
After years of exploration following large finds in neighbouring Abu Dhabi, oil was eventually discovered in territorial waters off Dubai in 1966, albeit in far smaller quantities. The first field was named "Fateh" or "good fortune". This accelerated Sheikh Rashid's infrastructure development plans and triggered a construction boom, resulting in a massive influx of foreign workers, primarily from Asia and the Middle East. Between 1968 and 1975, the city's population grew by over 300%.
As part of the infrastructure for pumping and transporting oil from the Fateh field, located offshore of the Jebel Ali area of Dubai, two 500,000-gallon storage tanks were built, known locally as "Kazzans", by welding them together on the beach and then digging them out and floating them to drop onto the seabed at the Fateh field. These were constructed by the Chicago Bridge & Iron Company, which gave the beach its local name (Chicago Beach), which was transferred to the Chicago Beach Hotel, which was demolished and replaced by the Jumeirah Beach Hotel in the late 1990s. The Kazzans were an innovative oil storage solution which meant supertankers could moor offshore even in bad weather and avoided the need to pipe oil onshore from Fateh, which is some 60 miles out to sea.
Dubai had already embarked on a period of infrastructural development and expansion. Oil revenue, flowing from 1969 onwards, supported a period of growth, with Sheikh Rashid embarking on a policy of infrastructure development and economic diversification before the emirate's limited reserves were depleted. Oil accounted for 24% of GDP in 1990 but had fallen to 7% of GDP by 2004.
Critically, one of the first major projects Sheikh Rashid embarked upon when oil revenue began to flow was the construction of Port Rashid, a deep-water free port built by the British company Halcrow. Originally intended to be a four-berth port, it was extended to sixteen berths during construction. The project was an outstanding success, with shipping queuing to access the new facilities. The port was inaugurated on 5 October 1972, although its berths were put to use as soon as they were built. Port Rashid was to be expanded in 1975 by 35 berths before the larger Jebel Ali port was constructed.
Reaching the UAE's Act of Union
thumb|left|[[Adi Bitar in a meeting with Sheiks Rashid Al Maktoum, Mohammad Al Maktoum, and Maktoum Al Maktoum in Dubai, 1968]]
Dubai and the other "Trucial States" had long been a British protectorate where the British government took care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Gulf, the result of a treaty signed in 1892 named the "Exclusive Agreement". This was to change with Prime Minister Harold Wilson's announcement, on 16 January 1968, that all British troops were to be withdrawn from "East of Aden". The decision was to pitch the coastal emirates, together with Qatar and Bahrain, into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum left by the British withdrawal.
The principle of union was first agreed upon between the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and Sheikh Rashid of Dubai on 18 February 1968, at a meeting in an encampment at Argoub Al Sedirah, near Al Semeih, a desert stop between the two emirates. The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union. Over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed—often stormy—as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union never recovered from the October 1969 meeting, when British intervention against aggressive actions by two of the Emirates prompted walkouts by Bahrain and Qatar. They dropped out of talks, leaving six of the seven "trucial" emirates to agree on a union on 18 July 1971.
On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, and Fujairah, joined in the Act of Union to form the United Arab Emirates. The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972, following Iran's annexation of the RAK-claimed Tunbs islands.
In 1973, Dubai, along with the other emirates, adopted a uniform currency: the UAE dirham.
Modern Dubai
thumb|Dubai Palm Jumeirah and Marina in 2011
Throughout the 1970s, Dubai experienced continued growth fuelled by oil and trade revenues, even as the city witnessed an influx of immigrants fleeing the Lebanese civil war. Border disputes between the emirates persisted even after the formation of the UAE; it was only in 1979 that a formal compromise was reached, putting an end to disagreements. In 1979, the establishment of the Jebel Ali port, a deep-water port accommodating larger ships, marked a significant development. Initially facing challenges, Sheikh Mohammed established JAFZA (Jebel Ali Free Zone) around the port in 1985, facilitating the unrestricted import of labour and the export of capital for foreign companies. Simultaneously, Dubai airport and the aviation industry continued their expansion.
The Gulf War in early 1991 had a negative financial impact on the city, as depositors and traders withdrew funds and halted trading. But Dubai rebounded in a changing political climate and prospered. In the late 1990s, various foreign trading communities—initially from Kuwait during the Gulf War and later from Bahrain amid the Shia unrest—relocated to Dubai. Dubai served as a refuelling base for allied forces at the Jebel Ali Free Zone during the Gulf War and again during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Subsequent significant increases in oil prices prompted Dubai to maintain its focus on free trade and tourism.
In the early 2000s, construction of artificial islands off Dubai's coast, known as the Palm Islands and The World Islands, began. The Burj Khalifa opened in Dubai in 2010, surpassing the Taipei 101 to become the tallest skyscraper in the world.
Dubai's smart city initiatives, including smart tourism, play a key role in advancing the city's growth ambitions, primarily through the Smart Dubai project. In 2016, the world's first functioning 3D-printed office building was opened in Dubai, having taken 17 days to build. The construction of Dubai Frame, a 150-meter marvel, commenced in 2014, and was completed in 2017.
During heightened tensions in the Middle East in the 2020s, Dubai's proximity to regional conflict zones led to frequent flight cancellations and heightened security concerns. In retaliation for a series of joint Israeli-American strikes on Iran on 28 February 2026, parts of the city were bombarded by Iranian strikes, including the Fairmont The Palm hotel and the municipal airport.
Geography
thumb|This time-lapse video shows the rate of Dubai's growth at one frame per year from 2000 through 2011. In the false-colour satellite images making up the video, the bare desert is tan, plant-covered land is red, water is black, and urban areas are silver.
thumb|Dune bashing in one of the deserts of Dubai
thumb|Dubai by Copernicus [[Sentinel-2 satellite in false-colour in 2024]]
Dubai is on the Persian Gulf coast of the United Arab Emirates and roughly at sea level ( above). The emirate of Dubai borders Abu Dhabi to the south, Sharjah to the northeast, and the Sultanate of Oman to the southeast. Hatta, a minor exclave of the emirate, is surrounded on three sides by Oman and by the emirates of Ajman (in the west) and Ras Al Khaimah (in the north). The Persian Gulf borders the western coast of the emirate. Dubai is positioned at and has an area of , a significant expansion beyond its initial designation due to land reclamation from the sea.
Dubai lies directly in the Arabian Desert. Still, its topography differs significantly from that of the southern UAE, with much of Dubai's landscape characterized by sandy desert patterns. In contrast, gravel deserts dominate much of the country's south. The sand consists mostly of crushed shells and coral and is fine, clean, and white. East of the city, the salt-crusted coastal plains, known as sabkha, give way to a north–south running line of dunes. Farther east, the dunes grow larger and are tinged red with iron oxide. Experts also say the probability of a tsunami in the region is minimal because the Persian Gulf waters are not deep enough to trigger one.
Climate
Dubai features a hot desert climate (Köppen BWh). Summers are extremely hot, prolonged, windy, and humid, with an average high around and overnight lows around in the hottest month, August. Most days are sunny throughout the year. Winters are mild to warm, with an average high of and overnight lows of in January, the coolest month.
Dubai summers are also known for very high humidity, which can make them uncomfortable for many, with exceptionally high dew points that can exceed . Heat index values can reach over at the height of summer. The highest recorded temperature in Dubai is .
Very dry, Dubai's average annual precipitation is . But precipitation has been increasing over the last few decades, with annual precipitation reaching . Record-setting flooding inundated Dubai in April 2024, demonstrating a lack of appropriate drainage to deal with the immense challenges precipitated by climate change.
Government
thumb|left|[[Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Prime Minister and Vice President of the United Arab Emirates and the Ruler of Dubai]]
Dubai has been ruled by the Al Maktoum family since 1833; the emirate is an absolute monarchy. Dubai citizens participate in the electoral college to vote representatives to the Federal National Council of the UAE. The ruler, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, is also the vice-president and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and a member of the Supreme Council of the Union (SCU). Dubai appoints eight members to the Federal National Council (FNC) of the UAE, the supreme federal legislative body, for two-term periods.
The Dubai Municipality (DM) was established by the then ruler of Dubai, Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, in 1954 for purposes of city planning, citizen services, and upkeep of local facilities. It has since then evolved into an autonomous subnational authority, collectively known as the Government of Dubai, which is responsible for both the city of Dubai and the greater emirate. The Government of Dubai has over 58 governmental departments responsible for security, economic policy, education, transportation, immigration, and is one of only three emirates to have a separate judicial system independent from the federal judiciary of the UAE. The Ruler of Dubai is the head of government and emir (head of state) and laws, decrees, and court judgments are issued in his name, however, since 2003, executive authority of managing and overseeing Dubai Governmental agencies has been delegated to the Dubai Executive Council, led by the Crown Prince of Dubai Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Maktoum. Although no legislative assembly exists, the traditional open majlis (council), where citizens and representatives of the Ruler meet, is often used for feedback on certain domestic issues.
Demographics
Ethnicity and languages
, the population is 3,331,420 an annual increase of 177,020 people, which represents a growth rate of 5.64%. The region covers . The population density is 408.18/km<sup>2</sup> more than eight times that of the entire country. Dubai is the second-most-expensive city in the region and the 20th-most-expensive city in the world.
, only about 15% of the emirate's population was made up of UAE nationals, with the rest comprising expatriates, many of whom either have been in the country for generations or were born in the UAE. Approximately 85% of the expatriate population (and 71% of the emirate's total population) was Asian, chiefly Indian (51%) and Pakistani (16%); other significant Asian groups include Bangladeshis (9%) and Filipinos (3%). A quarter of the population (local and foreign) reportedly traces their origins to Iran. In addition, 16% of the population (or 288,000 persons) living in collective labour accommodation were not identified by ethnicity or nationality, but were thought to be primarily Asian. Some 461,000 Westerners live in the United Arab Emirates, making up 5.1% of its total population. There are over 100,000 British expatriates in Dubai, by far the largest group of Western expatriates in the city. The median age in the emirate was about 27 years. In 2014, there were estimated to be 15.54 births and 1.99 deaths per 1,000 people. There are other Arab nationals, including GCC nationals.
Arabic is the national and official language of the UAE. The Gulf dialect of Arabic is spoken natively by most Emiratis; some Emiratis also speak Shihhi Arabic. English is used as a second language. Other major languages spoken in Dubai due to immigration are Malayalam, Sindhi, Gujarati, Urdu, Persian, Hindi, Tamil, Punjabi, Pashto, Bengali, Balochi, Tulu, Kannada, Sinhala, Marathi, Telugu, Tagalog, and Chinese, in addition to many others.
Religion
Article 7 of the UAE's Provisional Constitution declares Islam the official state religion of the UAE. The government subsidises almost 95% of mosques and employs all Imams; approximately 5% of mosques are entirely private, and several large mosques have large private endowments. All mosques in Dubai are managed by the Islamic Affairs and Charitable Activities Department, also known as "Awqaf", under the Government of Dubai. The Government appoints all Imams. The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates provides for freedom of religion. Expats held to be preaching religious hatred or promoting religious extremism are usually jailed and deported.