Doctrine of signatures

thumb|250px|[[Eyebright was used for eye infections, owing to the supposed resemblance of its flower to an eye.]]

The doctrine of signatures, also known as the doctrine of correspondences, is a biomedicinal theory of pseudoscience. It states that herbs or animals have physical or behavioral traits that mirror the ailment it can successfully treat. Theological justifications, such as that of botanist William Cole, were that God would want to show men what plants would be useful for. Many historians believe it begins with primitive thinking methods, while other historians believe it originated with Dioscorides and was popularized in the 16th and 17th centuries after Jakob Böhme coined the doctrine of signatures in his book The Signature of All Things. The theory later became a scientific basis for trying new remedies solely based upon their qualities in an attempt to find new medicines. While there are some homeopathic remedies that are still used today which have been connected to this theory, there are also remedies from this theory which have been found harmful. For instance, birthwort (so-called because of its resemblance to the uterus) was once used widely for pregnancies, but is carcinogenic and very damaging to the kidneys, owing to its aristolochic acid content. As a defense against predation, many plants contain toxic chemicals, the action of which is not immediately apparent or easily tied to the plant rather than other factors.

History

thumb|253x253px|Diagram by [[Athanasius Kircher describing the relationship of the human body, constellations, and plants with signatures for medical use]]

The origins of the doctrine of signatures are debated by historians. The concept of the doctrine of signatures dates back to Hippocratic medicine and the belief that "cures for human ills were divinely revealed in nature, often through plants." The concept would be further developed by Dioscorides. Dioscorides would provide ample descriptions of plant medications through various drawings, detailing the importance of their look, name, shelf life, how to tell when plants have gone bad, and how to properly harvest the crop for medical use. He suggested that God marked objects with a sign, or "signature", for their purpose, specifically that "to that Signature, his inward form is noted in the form of his face; and thus also is a beast, an herb, and the trees; every thing as it is inwardly [in its innate virtue and quality] so it is outwardly signed". Plants bearing parts that resembled human body parts, animals, or other objects were thought to have useful relevance to those parts, animals, or objects. The "signature" could sometimes also be identified in the environments or specific sites in which plants grew.

The English physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne, in his discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658), uses the quincunx pattern as an archetype of the 'doctrine of signatures' pervading the design of gardens and orchards, botany, and the macrocosm at large.

The 17th-century botanist William Coles supposed that God had made "Herbes for the use of men, and hath given them particular Signatures, whereby a man may read the use of them." White explains the connectiveness between Christianity and the doctrine of signatures as its increased presence and significance in the orthodox faith as theological pseudoscience.

Linked remedies

{| class="wikitable"

!Name

!Link to doctrine

!History of use

!Effectiveness

|Common figwort (Scrophulariaceae) center|thumb|242x242px|Sample of Scrophularia capillaris and root structure

|Figwort's roots have small nodules that resemble nodes within the lymph system or swelling. In ancient China, Scrophularia ningpoensis, another member of the Scrophulariaceae family, was used for sore throats, abscesses, carbuncles, and constipation. Native American women in the Shenandoah Valley would use this plant after childbirth to prevent bleeding and cramps or as a calming tonic. The treatment linked to the doctrine of signs was for inflammation and conditions that cause lymph node swelling, which are thought to resemble the root nodules.

|Study of this plant has correlated it with anti-inflammatory effects. This is potentially linked to the fact that this species has iridoids, which can exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

|Eyebright aka Euphrasy/Euphrasia (Euphrasia rostkoviana) center|thumb|226x226px|Euphrasia flower

|Named "eyebright" because its flower blossoms resemble eyes.

|Contains flavonoids and polyphenols, which have been linked to lowered inflammation by interacting with cytokines. center|thumb|Swallowwort plant|208x208px

|Linked through animal behavior, "some say that this [the name] was because it flowered at about the time the swallows reappeared and finished when they left; but there grew a story that swallow mothers bathed their blind nestlings with its [figwort's] juices to help them see." Swallowwort may also be referred to as celandine (species Chelidonium majus in the family Papaveraceae), and this is cited as being linked to the doctrine because of the yellow latex believed to link with jaundice and liver bile.

|In traditional Chinese medicine, this plant was used for the treatment of jaundice, accumulation of fluids, or clots. In other regions it was used for ulcers, liver conditions, digestive complaints, oral infections, tuberculosis, and dermatological conditions.

|"Isoquinoline alkaloids, flavonoids, carotenoids, saponins, organic acids, and vitamins A and C are the distinct biologically active compounds of C. majus. According to the metabolites identified, it has been found to possess a range of pharmacological effects such as antimicrobial activity, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, natriuretic, antidiuretic, and anticancer effects." center|thumb|184x184px|Aristolochia clematitis

|Said to resemble the womb and birth canal in shape and believed to provide a good birth. It was also combined with quicklime and used as fish poison. Specifically, it is linked to urothelial neoplasms, a precancerous cell in the urinary system.

|Hedge woundwort (Stachys sylvatica) center|thumb|Stachys sylvatica

|Believed to treat wounds and bruises because the plants themselves have holes in the leaves.

|During the medieval period, flowers were ground, mixed with salt, and used on spear and sword wounds.

|Both the flower and leaf extract show antibacterial and antioxidant attributes, which help to control oxidative stress and risk of infection in healing.

|Liverwort (Marchantiophyta or Hepatica) center|thumb|Illustration of Hepatica plant|268x268px

|The mat-forming liverworts resembled lobes of the liver.

|There is some scientific support for specific species having properties that can aid treatment of hepatitis, blisters, gastrointestinal complaints, and fever. This is linked to antibacterial and antifungal properties. Liverworts also have metabolites that interact with the central nervous system and thus can have serious side effects.

|Lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis) center|thumb|192x192px|Lungwort plant

|The spotted leaves resemble structures within the lungs.

|Was used in Europe to treat phthisis, another name for tuberculosis.

|Within a 2022 systematic review of scientific research, Chauhan and associates concluded that "safety studies and clinical trials are missing for lungworts to establish most of their potential biological properties."

|Spleenwort (Asplenium) center|thumb|177x177px|Spleenwort plant

|The grass is said to resemble both hair and worms and is used to treat worms or hair loss.

|Usually ingested as a tea used to relieve stomach issues and parasitic worm infections in both Europe and China.

|As of 2021, systematic reviews of different medicinal applications showed no scientific consensus that they are effective in treating any conditions.

|Walnuts (Juglans) center|thumb|200x200px|Walnut nut and shell

|Believed to treat brain-related conditions because the seed resembles a brain or gastrointestinal complaints because of the appearance of the intestines.

|Walnuts contain fatty acids, which are valuable for the brain. From a medicinal standpoint, there is not a significant evidence base that it can prevent cognitive decline.

It is worth noting that it is possible that these are post hoc attributions—the appearance and treatment linked after the medicinal property was discovered. There is no scientific or historical evidence that plant shapes and colors have aided in the discovery of their medical uses. Similar theories have been observed all over the world in ancient Egypt, China, pre-Columbian America, and the Middle East. Remedies would, in many cases, be based on the environmental availability of that resource rather than its objective effectiveness. In this context, the elite observers would be those that, for example, notice that lungwort's leaves look like lung tissue rather than positing that the dark red flowers could look like blood clots or the pink petals like irritated skin. Hypotheses like these and the questions they posed, regardless of the validity of the hypotheses themselves, inspired scientific investigations into the safety and usefulness of many plant-based remedies.

In literature and television

The phrase "signatures of all things" appears in the beginning of episode three in James Joyce's novel Ulysses. The character Stephen Dedalus is walking along the beach, thinking to himself, "Signatures of all things I am here to read, seaspawn and seawrack, the nearing tide, that rusty boot". The Canadian poet Anne Szumigalski, 1922–1999, entitled her third full-length collection Doctrine of Signatures. The doctrine of signatures is a major plot point in the Lewis episode "The Soul of Genius" (Series 6, 2012).

References

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Bibliography

Doctrine of signatures

History

Linked remedies

In literature and television

See also

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Further reading