thumb|The toxic berry of [[Atropa belladonna which contains the tropane deliriants scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine.]]

Deliriants are a subclass of hallucinogen. The term was coined in the early 1980s to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics such as LSD and dissociatives such as ketamine, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed to the more lucid and less disturbed states produced by other types of hallucinogens, where rational thought is better preserved (including the ability to distinguish hallucinations from reality). The term generally refers to anticholinergic drugs, which are substances that inhibit the function of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. A number of plant deliriants such as that of the Solanaceae family, particularly in the Americas, have been used by some Indigenous cultures to reach delirious and altered states of consciousness for traditions or rituals, such as rites of passage, divination or communicating with the ancestors. Despite their long history of use, deliriants are the least-studied class of hallucinogens in terms of their behavioral and neurological effects.

Etymology

The term was introduced by David F. Duncan and Robert S. Gold due to a characteristic delirium-like effect which is known to manifest as a reoccurring symptom for anticholinergic hallucinogens. However, antagonism of both the M<sub>1</sub> receptor and the M<sub>2</sub> receptor have been implicated as having negative effects on memory and cognition, and the selective M<sub>2</sub> receptor antagonist hyoscyamine has been reported to produce deliriant effects similarly to M<sub>1</sub> receptor antagonists. Conversely, the M<sub>3</sub> receptor has not been implicated in cognition. As an example, the M<sub>1</sub>, M<sub>2</sub>, M<sub>4</sub> and M<sub>5</sub> receptors have all been implicated in regulating dopamine release, with the M<sub>1</sub>, M<sub>2</sub>, and M<sub>4</sub> receptors having inhibitory effects on dopamine release and the M<sub>5</sub> receptor having stimulatory effects. Due to these compounds' inhibition of various signal transduction pathways, the decrease in acetylcholine signaling is what leads to many of the cognitive deficits and mental impairments.

It has also been said that common anticholinergic agents/hallucinogens should be more accurately referred to as antimuscarinics, as for instance these agents do not generally block nicotinic receptors.

Scopolamine has been shown to exert a greater impairment on episodic memory, event-related potentials, memory retention and free recall compared to DPH (an anticholinergic and antihistamine). Some antihistamines may also act as deliriants in high doses. Due to scopolamine's prominent amnesiac and impairing effects, it has been used in Colombia for criminal purposes such as 'drugging' individuals, usually perceived as wealthy, and robbing them due to scopolamine's discombobulating effects and enhanced suggestibility. It is usually done by putting the extracted and isolated powder form of the alkaloid in a victim's (alcoholic) drink, oftentimes directly by or with the help of attractive women to act as criminal accomplices to the robbers.

In Colombia, isolated (powdered) scopolamine has become infamous and is referred to there by several monikers such as Burundanga and "Devil's Breath". It is usually extracted by criminals from the Borrachero Tree and may even occasionally be encountered as a street drug there.

The antimuscarinic plant-based alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also notorious for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations. Other commonly reported behaviors and experiences include holding conversations with imagined persons or entities, smoking nonexistent cigarettes (even with nonsmokers), visual hallucinations of spiders or shadow figures or being unable to recognize one's own reflection in a mirror. Anthropological assessment of the sacred Chumash Datura cult in Southern California ascertained that within the tribe, frequent or repeat users of datura tended to gradually become more and more antisocial, often adopting behavior patterns that the rest of the tribe viewed as "capricious malevolence".

During one of his workshops in Hawaii, psychonaut Terence McKenna discussed the effects of the hallucinogenic Solanaceae plants compared to psychedelics, stating that:

During an on-camera interview, author of The God Molecule: 5-MeO-DMT and the Spiritual Path to the Divine Light, Gerardo Ruben Sandoval Isaac explained that in the Oaxaca "mushroom village" of San José del Pacifico, the psilocybin mushrooms are regarded as being "related to light" and that (Brugmansia) is "related to the darkness" and that they (the tribes) "are aware of the polarity of this flower", further crediting the idea that the hallucinogenic experience produced by deliriants is typically of a "dark" and disturbing nature. When datura was first formally discovered in colonial Jamestown, Virginia in 1676 by English soldiers during Bacon's Rebellion, they spent 11 days in altered mental states after using the leaves of the plant, which they did not know were psychoactive and poisonous, as part of a salad.

Deliriant substances

thumb|300px|Datura stramonium (jimsonweed) 4-valved seed capsule

Naturally-occurring anticholinergic deliriants are found in the plant species Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade), various Brugmansia species (Angel's Trumpets), Datura stramonium (Jimson weed), Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), and Mandragora officinarum (mandrake) in the form of the tropane alkaloids scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine. Other, lesser known plant sources of scopolamine and related tropanes include Scopolia carniolica endemic to Europe, Latua endemic to southern Chile, Solandra endemic to Mexico and Duboisia myoporoides, which is endemic to Australia and contains both scopolamine and nicotine. Scopolamine has often been considered, pharmacologically and psychonautically the premier and paradigmatic deliriant substance, to which all other deliriants and/or antimuscarinic hallucinogens are usually compared. The effects caused by myristicin and elemicin found in nutmeg's essential oil can last up to several days, similarly to the tropane alkaloids found in datura. The mushroom referred to as fly agaric with its active agents ibotenic acid and muscimol may also be considered an 'atypical' deliriant, although fly agaric is probably more accurately described as a hypnotic.

In rare cases, highly toxic plants from the Aconitum (wolfsbane) genus have been used as "deliriants" by certain groups practicing European witchcraft, the left-hand path or asceticism due to the unpleasant but supposed altered state of consciousness which can be a side effect of wolfsbane poisoning. Plants of the aconitum genus contain the neurotoxin aconitine and in the case of Aconitum ferox, an extremely toxic alkaloid called pseudaconitine, which is in rare cases, taken as an ordeal poison and entheogen on the Indian subcontinent by ascetic groups such as the Aghori, where it may be mixed with other psychoactive plants or poisons such as datura and cannabis. Risk of death is considered very high when taking A. ferox and its use is restricted to only the most experienced adepts of their particular school of Shivaism.

Recreational use

thumb|200px|A woman diagnosed with [[Chronic disease|chronic dementia, 1896]]

Despite the fully legal status of several common deliriant plants and OTC medicines, deliriants are largely unpopular as recreational drugs due to the severe dysphoria, uncomfortable and generally damaging cognitive and physical effects, as well as the unpleasant nature of the hallucinations. In addition to potentially dangerous mental/behavioral effects (accidents during deliriant experiences are common) some tropane alkaloids, such as those found in plants of the Datura genus, are exceptionally toxic and can cause death due to tachycardia-induced heart failure, hypoventilation and hyperthermia even in small doses. Anticholinergics have been shown to increase the risk of developing dementia with long-term use, even at therapeutic doses, therefore they are presumed to carry an even greater risk when used at hallucinogenic dosages. Scopolamine in particular has been implemented in scientific models used to study the cholinergic hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease and other related dementias.

Despite these overtly negative effects both on the physical and mental health of the user, usage of deliriants for recreational purposes has still gone on for centuries and was said to be introduced in Europe and surrounding areas by the Romani people, who would smoke or ingest plants such as datura to experience hallucinations. It has been said that certain groups who used deliriant plants, especially in hedgewitchery (wortcunning) practices, would traditionally mix in medicinal or neuroprotective plants either directly during the intoxications or later on to counter negative health consequences or symptoms such as dysphoria or senility.

Occultism and folklore

thumb|400px|Preparation for the Witches' Sabbath by [[David Teniers the Younger. Note on the left, an older witch reading from a grimoire, while anointing the buttocks of a young witch about to fly to the sabbath upon an inverted besom, with a candle upon its twigs]]

Deliriants such as henbane, belladonna, mandrake, jimsonweed and fly agaric are associated with and featured in many stories and beliefs within European mythology.

Tropane-containing nightshades have played an integral role in Old World folklore and European witchcraft. Belladonna was purported to aid in the "flight of witches" where they reportedly would experience "bacchanalian carousal" or hallucinatory dreaming.

Mandrake (the root of Mandragora officinarum) is mentioned twice in the Bible, and was also frequently mentioned as a typical ingredient in flying ointment recipes since at least as far back as the Early Modern Period. In certain South American countries, members of the Brugmansia genus have been known to be occasionally added to ayahuasca brews by malevolent sorcerers (brujos) or bad shamans who wish to take advantage of unsuspecting tourists. Genuine shamans (curanderos) believe one of the purposes for this is to "steal one's energy and/or power", of which they believe every person has a limited amount.

Classes of deliriants

Anticholinergics

Tropanes

  • Atropine
  • Hyoscyamine
  • Scopolamine

Ethanolamines

  • Dimenhydrinate
  • Diphenhydramine
  • Doxylamine (anticholinergic at higher doses)

Disubstituted glycolic acid esters:

  • Benactyzine
  • Dicyclomine
  • N-ethyl-3-piperidyl benzilate
  • N-methyl-3-piperidyl benzilate
  • 3-quinuclidinyl benzilate
  • Ditran
  • EA-3167

Antihistamines

  • Buclizine
  • Cinnarizine
  • Clemastine
  • Cyclizine
  • Dimenhydrinate
  • Diphenhydramine
  • Doxylamine
  • Hydroxyzine
  • Meclizine
  • Orphenadrine
  • Promethazine

Other

  • Benzydamine
  • Elemicin
  • Eugenol
  • Anethole
  • Myristicin
  • Ibotenic Acid
  • Tropicamide

See also

  • Flying ointment
  • List of hallucinogens
  • Trip report

References

  • The Uses of Delirium: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Datura-like Drugs Des Tramacchi's lecture in Entheogenesis Australis 2007 symposium.