Datura stramonium, known by the common names thornapple, jimsonweed (jimson weed), or devil's trumpet, is a poisonous flowering plant in the Daturae tribe of the nightshade family Solanaceae. Its likely origin was in Central America, and it has been introduced in many world regions. It is an aggressive invasive weed in temperate climates and tropical climates across the world. It is unlikely to become a major drug of abuse owing to effects upon both mind and body frequently perceived as being highly unpleasant, giving rise to a state of profound and long-lasting disorientation or delirium (anticholinergic syndrome) with a potentially fatal outcome. It contains tropane alkaloids which are responsible for the psychoactive effects, and may be severely toxic.

Description

thumb|Mature (left) and immature (right) seed capsules

Datura stramonium is an erect, annual, freely branching herb that forms a bush tall.

The root is long, thick, fibrous, and white. The stem is stout, erect, leafy, smooth, and pale yellow-green to reddish purple in color. The stem forks off repeatedly into branches and each fork forms a leaf and a single, erect flower. The origin of Neo-Latin stramonium is unknown; the name Stramonia was used in the 17th century for various Datura species. There is some evidence that Stramonium is originally from Greek , 'nightshade' and , 'which makes mad'. It is called () in Telugu, and () in Tamil; both of which are believed to have derived from the Sanskrit word (), meaning 'mad' or 'insane'.

In the United States, the plant is commonly known as "Jimsonweed" (or, more rarely, "Jamestown weed"). This name derives from Jamestown, Virginia, where soldiers sent to suppress Bacon's Rebellion in the English colony of Virginia reportedly consumed the plant and spent eleven days in altered mental states:

Common names for Datura stramonium vary by region moon flower, hell's bells, devil's trumpet, devil's weed, tolguacha, Jamestown weed, stinkweed, locoweed, pricklyburr, false castor oil plant, and devil's cucumber.

Range and habitat

Datura stramonium is native to Central America, but was spread widely to the Old World early where it has also become naturalized. Today, it grows wild in all the world's warm and temperate regions, where it is found along roadsides and at dung-rich livestock enclosures. In Europe, it is found as a weed in garbage dumps and wastelands, and is toxic to animals consuming it. In South Africa, it is colloquially known by the Afrikaans name ('mad seeds').

Through observation, the seed is thought to be carried by birds and spread in their droppings. Its seeds can lie dormant underground for years and germinate when the soil is disturbed. The Royal Horticultural Society has advised worried gardeners to dig it up or have it otherwise removed, while wearing gloves to handle it.

Toxicity

All parts of Datura plants contain dangerous levels of the tropane alkaloids atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine, all of which are classified as deliriants, or anticholinergics. Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported. Numerous other alkaloids have been detected at lower levels in the plant including methylecgonine in the roots, apoatropine in the stems, leaves, and other parts, and tropine in the flowers and other parts.

The amount of toxins varies widely from plant to plant. As much as a 20:1 variation can be found between plants, and a given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. Additionally, within a given plant, toxin concentration varies by part and even from leaf to leaf. When the plant is younger, the ratio of scopolamine to atropine is about 3:1; after flowering, this ratio is reversed, with the amount of scopolamine continuing to decrease as the plant gets older. In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience and detailed knowledge of Datura was critical to minimize harm.

Recently a rodent study investigating a methanolic extract derived from the whole plant reported significant behavioural and neurochemical effects. The extract induced memory deficits, along with anxiogenic and depressive-like behaviours. These effects were associated with elevated lipid peroxidation and a marked depletion of antioxidant enzymes in the brain. Histological analysis revealed disrupted neuronal morphology in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex, providing evidence suggestive of the plant's neurotoxic potential.

Datura intoxication typically produces delirium, hallucination, hyperthermia, tachycardia, bizarre behavior, urinary retention, and severe mydriasis, with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days. The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last as long as two weeks.

Natural defenses

These chemical production responses present in Datura stramonium function as a natural defense for the plant against dangers. Such dangers can range from biotic factors such as herbivores, pathogens, viruses, fungi and oomycetes to abiotic conditions such as drought, light, temperature, and nutrient deprivation. Datura stramonium can adjust to all these conditions through protein activity that is correlated with specific domains. Examples of this are terpenoid production to target herbivores present in multiple sites and abiotic stress responses. The abiotic responses are driven primarily by protein kinase regulatory subunits which are over-represented, expanded, and positively selected. These traits also show signs of physicochemical divergence, which put emphasis on the plant's overall adaptability. In addition to this, terpenoids play a key role in mediating plant defense responses, as they trigger terpene metabolite activity.

The physiology of the plant itself is important for understanding patterns of defense as its status as an annual plant limits opportunities for biomass regrowth post-destruction, due to its inability to engage regrowth meristems. This results in the leaves being susceptible to injury from even small instances of attacks. To compensate, they have a large initial size for redundancy. These leaves also have a greater longevity and ability to metabolize even when damaged. However, the way these plants have evolved to display these characteristics differs from traditional defense mechanisms, as Datura stramonium uses a combination of both resistance and growth simultaneously to address these issues, instead of relying exclusively on one or the other. It has been hypothesized that this is due to the fact that these two methods have no negative correlation between them in experimental conditions. However, resource limitations may result in a tradeoff between one method of defense versus the other. In addition, herbivores are not solely the driving force that triggers these responses within the plant. Another factor that impacts behavior is the fact that due to the wide habitat range, a number of different, region-specific response patterns have been observed. However, these defensive responses have been observed to have varying impacts on growth and fitness when put to the test against predators. Studies in ecological reserves have shown that herbivore presence can either increase or decrease plant growth, fitness, and resistance. These results can be attributed to the significant genetic variation of the individual variants present in testing.

Uses

Traditional medicine

D. stramonium var. tatula, flower (front)|thumb|right

One of the primary active agents in Datura is atropine, which has been used in traditional medicine and for recreation over centuries. The Chinese also used it as a form of anesthesia during surgery.

Early folk medicine

John Gerard's Herball (1597) states,

Henry Hyde Salter discusses D. stramonium as a treatment for asthma in his 19th-century work On Asthma: its Pathology and Treatment. Smoking of herbs, including D. stramonium, was thought to provide relief for asthmatics since antiquity and into the early 20th century.

Spiritualism and the occult

thumb|right|Seed capsule, showing [[dehiscence (botany)|dehiscence of the four valves to release seeds]]

Across the Americas, indigenous peoples such as the Algonquian, Aztecs, Navajo, Cherokee, Luiseño and the indigenous peoples of Marie-Galante used this plant or other Datura species in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties. In Ethiopia, some students and debtrawoch (lay priests), use D. stramonium to "open the mind" to be more receptive to learning, and creative and imaginative thinking.

The common name "datura" has its origins in India, where the sister species Datura metel is considered particularly sacred – believed to be a favorite of Shiva in Shaivism. Both Datura stramonium and D. metel have reportedly been used by some sadhus and charnel ground ascetics, such as the Aghori, as both an entheogen and ritual poison. It was sometimes mixed with cannabis, as well as highly poisonous plants like Aconitum ferox, to intentionally create dysphoric experiences. The ascetics have used unpleasant or toxic plants such as these in order to achieve spiritual liberation (moksha), in settings of extreme horror and discomfort.

Among its visionary purposes, jimsonweed also garnered a reputation for supposed magical uses in various cultures throughout history. In his book, The Serpent and the Rainbow, Wade Davis identified D. stramonium, called "zombi cucumber" in Haiti, as a central ingredient of the concoction vodou priests use to create zombies. However, it has been noted that the process of zombification is not directly performed by vodou priests of the loa but rather by bokors. In European witchcraft, D. stramonium was also supposedly a common ingredient used for making witches' flying ointment along with other poisonous plants of the nightshade family. It was often responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of magical or lycanthropic salves and potions. During the witch-phobia craze in Early Modern times in England and parts of the colonial Northeastern United States, it was often considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow the plant in one's garden, as it was considered to be an aid to incantations.

References

  • USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Profile: Datura stramonium L.
  • Datura stramonium at Liber Herbarum II.
  • Datura spp. at Erowid
  • Datura stramonium Pictures and information