Daher al-Umar

Daher al-Umar al-Zaydani, alternatively spelled Zahir al-Umar or Dahir al-Umar (, 1689/90 – 21 or 22 August 1775), was the paramount sheikh of the Zayadina family and strongman of northern Palestine from the 1730s until his death in 1775, during Ottoman rule. At his zenith in 1774, Daher's control extended across the Syrian coast from Jaffa to Sidon, though formal recognition of his status was limited to that of a (tax farmer).

In 1730, Daher emerged as the leader of his family, whose members served as in the Galilee. With Bedouin support, he took over Tiberias and over the next decade, gained control of Safed, Nazareth and the adjoining districts. He and his family fortified the Galilee's towns and villages, most notably Deir Hanna, helping them withstand sieges by the governor of Damascus in 1742–1743. By then, Daher controlled the area's cotton crop and eventually monopolized its high-demand trade with European merchants. In , he developed the small port of Acre into his headquarters and the outlet for this trade, amassing substantial wealth. He expanded his holdings to Haifa and its environs in the 1760s, putting him into conflict with the governor of Damascus, Uthman Pasha al-Kurji. In this struggle Daher allied with Egypt's independent mamluk strongman, Ali Bey, and the Shias of southern Lebanon. Their military campaigns ousted Uthman Pasha and his son from Damascus and Sidon, culminating with Daher's victory at Lake Hula and occupation of Sidon in 1771.

Daher's fortunes turned in 1772 with the ouster of Ali Bey by his deputy Abu al-Dhahab. Despite this setback, Daher, with support from the Russian navy, occupied Jaffa, allied with the Druze emir Yusuf Shihab, and dislodged the Ottomans from Beirut. By early 1774, the Ottomans' supreme army chief in Syria, Uthman Pasha al-Wakil, granted him the (life-term tax farm) of Sidon province and the (tax farms) of most of Palestine, though this was soon voided by the new sultan. In March 1775, Abu al-Dhahab ousted Daher from Acre, but after his sudden death, Daher returned to power. In August, the Ottomans, freed up from their six-year war with Russia, blockaded Acre and eliminated Daher. By late 1776, Zaydani power was altogether eliminated by Sidon's new Acre-based governor, Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, with the killing of Daher's son Ali.

Daher oversaw an efficient administration and maintained domestic security, though he contended with several rebellions by his sons as they vied to succeed him. The aforementioned factors, along with Daher's flexible taxation policies and battlefield reputation earned him the goodwill of the local peasantry. Daher invited Christian and Jewish immigrants to his domains from across the empire, stimulating the local economy and leading to the significant growth of the Christian communities in Acre and Nazareth and the Jewish community in Tiberias. Under his rule, northern Palestine's main centers, Acre, Haifa, Tiberias, and Nazareth, urbanized and prospered after long periods of decline. With Acre's restoration and the reestablishment of Haifa, Daher significantly strengthened the Galilee's ties with the Mediterranean world, which continued under Jazzar. Daher's practically autonomous rule over much of Palestine has made him a national hero among Palestinians today.

Family and early life

thumb|upright|Daher's purported home in [[Arraba, Galilee|Arraba]]

Daher was born around 1690. His father, Umar, was a sheikh of the Zayadina (sing. Zaydani), a small family of Bedouin (nomadic Arab) origin which had abandoned nomadism under Daher's grandfather, Salih, and settled as cultivators in the Tiberias area in the late 17th century. Daher's mother was a member of the Sardiyya, a Bedouin tribe based in the Hauran. Around 1698, Umar effectively became the tax collector of the Safed (fiscal district). He was appointed by Bashir Shihab, the powerful emir of the Druze in Mount Lebanon who had been granted the (limited-term tax farm) of Safed by the governor of Sidon Eyalet. By 1703, Umar had grown powerful enough to be considered the "paramount sheikh of the Galilee" by the French vice-consul of Sidon, while his brothers Ali and Hamza were (holders of ) of the western Lower Galilee and the vicinity of Nazareth.

Umar died in 1706 and was succeeded as head of the family by Daher's eldest brother, Sa'd. The Zayadina were deposed from their by the governor of Sidon the following year, after the death of Bashir, but were restored by Bashir's successor, Haydar Shihab in 1711. The Zayadina occasionally transferred their to Daher during his adolescence to help prevent the authorities from holding them accountable in the event of a default. Legal control of the Zaydani gave Daher considerable power within his clan. In 1707, Daher was entangled in a brawl, killing a man from Tiberias. Sa'd consequently moved the family to Arraba, a village between the commercial centers of Tiberias, Safed and Nazareth but away from the main highways. The Zayadina had been offered safe haven there by the chiefs of the Bedouin Banu Saqr tribe. In Arraba, Daher gained some formal education from a Muslim scholar, Abd al-Qadir al-Hifnawi, and learned how to hunt and fight. When the nearby village of Bi'ina was attacked by the governor of Sidon between 1713 and 1718, Daher helped defend the village and evaded the governor's troops. According to contemporary chroniclers, this event, along with Daher's moderate personality, made him a local folk hero. His martial talents gained him further respect among the peasantry throughout the 1720s.

Sa'd and Daher also gained the respect of the Damascenes, with whom they continued the commercial relationships established by their father. The wealth their father and uncles had previously generated from trade with Damascus and Aleppo had enabled the Zayadina to initially obtain their tax farms. Throughout the 1720s, Daher frequently joined caravans to Damascus, where he bought and sold goods. Among the contacts he made there was the Muslim scholar Abd al-Ghaffar al-Shuwayki, who introduced Daher to Sayyid Muhammad of the Husayni family, which was part of the city's elite class (descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad). Daher married Sayyid Muhammad's daughter as his first wife, and established her residence in Nazareth because she considered Arraba too small. When Sayyid Muhammad died, Daher inherited his fortune. Daher had four other wives, among them a woman from his mother's Sardiyya tribe, and the daughters of the s (village headmen) of Bi'ina and Deir al-Qassi. His marriages were politically advantageous, helping seal control over areas he captured and consolidate relationships with Bedouin tribes, local clans, or urban notables. From his marriages, Daher had eight sons and a daughter. His sons, from eldest to youngest, were Salibi, Uthman, full brothers Ali and Sa'id, Ahmad, Salih, Sa'd al-Din and Abbas. His daughter Nijma was married to his cousin Karim al-Ayyubi, the grandson of Daher's uncle Ali. By 1773, Daher had a total of 272 children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren, according to the contemporary Sauveur Lusignan.

Rise and consolidation of power

Stronghold in the Galilee

Capture of Tiberias

Around 1730, the governor of Sidon and the rural sheikhs of Jabal Nablus (e.g. Samaria) collaborated in a military campaign to suppress the Saqr Bedouins. The tribe had long dominated the area between Nablus and Safed, rendering the highways unsafe for travel and commerce, while often plundering villages and ignoring tax obligations. Under pressure, the Saqr resolved to appoint a local dignitary to negotiate on their behalf with the government. Their leader, Rashid al-Jabr, nominated Daher for the role, hoping his tribe could benefit from the Zayadina's good reputation with the authorities and the local inhabitants. The Zayadina's chief at the time, Sa'd, was bypassed in favor of the younger Daher, a signal that the Saqr did not intend to subordinate themselves to the Zayadina's will. The historian Thomas Philipp comments the Bedouins "probably hoped to use Ẓāhir for their own purposes" but "did not anticipate how quickly Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar would use them for his own ambitions".

Not long after allying with the Saqr, Daher initiated his takeover of Tiberias with the Bedouins' support. Daher captured the town's (subdistrict governor and tax collector) and sent him to the governor of Sidon with a letter accusing the of oppressing and illegally taxing the population, thereby engendering the inhabitants' ire toward the government. Daher requested the of Tiberias and Arraba, promising to timely forward taxes and rule justly. The governor of Sidon consented, marking the first time a Zaydani was directly appointed by a provincial governor rather than through the Shihabi . Daher made Tiberias his principal base and was joined there by his Zaydani kinsmen. He appointed his cousin Muhammad, the son of Ali, as commander of the family militia. Daher spent the 1730s fortifying Tiberias and expanding his territory.

Northern and western expansion

thumb|upright=1.1|Ruins of the [[Yehi'am Fortress National Park|fortress of Jiddin, in the northwestern Galilee]]

Due to the relative justice and fairness of his rule, peasants from nearby areas moved to Daher's domains or invited his rule. The people living under Ahmad al-Husayn, the of the Jiddin nahiye (subdistrict), in the northwestern Galilee, appealed for Daher to relieve them of his heavy-handedness, as well as the extortions of the Bedouins. Daher obtained permission from Sidon's governor, Ibrahim Pasha al-Azm, to seize the area and Ahmad also requested permission to attack Daher, to which Ibrahim Pasha consented in the hope of neutralizing two powerful local leaders. In 1738, Daher led a 1,500-strong force which defeated Ahmad near the Jiddin fortress, occupying it and the adjacent areas under its control, namely Abu Sinan, to the west, and Tarshiha, to the east. He was then formally granted the of Jiddin. During the confrontation, Daher encountered a mercenary, Ahmad Agha al-Dinkizli, whom he commissioned to raise and command a private army of Maghrebi troops.

Daher next moved on Safed, whose , Muhammad al-Naf'i, surrendered the town around 1740. Control of the strategically situated town, with its citadel built on a high hill, gave the Zayadina command over the surrounding countryside. Afterward, the fortified village of Bi'ina, which had withstood a siege by Daher in 1739, was added to his domains through an agreement sealed by Daher's marriage to the daughter of the village (headman). He also acquired the fortress of Suhmata through diplomacy, followed by the nearby fortified village of Deir al-Qassi, after marrying the daughter of its sheikh, Abd al-Khaliq Salih. These gains solidified Daher's hold over the northern and eastern Galilee. Elsewhere, Sa'd took control of Deir Hanna, establishing his headquarters there, while their cousin Muhammad, who was already the of Damun, added Shefa-Amr to his holdings, boosting the Zayadina's presence in the western Galilee.

Capture of Nazareth and conflict with Nablus

Nazareth, a mostly Christian town, came under Daher's control by the end of 1740, following his capture of Safed. Philipp contends the extension of Daher's rule southward toward Nazareth and the neighboring Marj Ibn Amer, the wide plain between the Galilee and Jabal Nablus through which the Damascus–Nablus trade routes passed, was a drawn-out process and the precise dating of the associated events is unclear. Although it administratively belonged to the Sidon Eyalet, Nazareth was controlled by the rural chiefs of Nablus Sanjak, a district of the Damascus Eyalet. The town was the residence of Daher's first, Damascene wife and the hometown of his second wife. Through these connections, he forged good ties with its residents. They preferred Daher, who had a reputation for religious tolerance, over the chiefs and merchants of Nablus, who they viewed as oppressive or extortionary.

thumb|left|upright=1.2|Drawing of [[Nazareth, 1839]]

The dominant clans of Jabal Nablus, especially the Jarrars, challenged Daher's advance, recruiting the Saqr as allies. By then, the Saqr had become hostile toward Daher, their ostensible junior partner, for stemming their raids against the peasants in his territories. Probably sometime after 1738, Daher, backed by his kinsmen, Maghrebi mercenaries, and the residents of Nazareth, routed the Jarrar–Saqr coalition at the Marj Ibn Amer village of al-Rawda (near al-Mansi). Afterward, Daher called for reinforcements from the people of his domains to subdue Jabal Nablus. Among them were many residents of Nazareth, including Christian women who supplied the troops with food and water. Daher's forces pursued the Jarrars to their throne village of Sanur, but retreated after failing to capture its fortress. The defeat marked the limit of Daher's influence south of Marj Ibn Amer and confirmed the Jarrars as the dominant force of Jabal Nablus.

Confrontations and respite with Damascus

thumb|upright=1.2|Drawing of [[Tiberias and its walls, 1857]]

Daher's rise coincided with that of the Azm family, whose members governed Damascus Eyalet for over a quarter century starting in 1725. Sulayman Pasha al-Azm became governor of Damascus in 1734 and opposed Daher's buildup of power on the borders of his province and encroachments into the Nablus Sanjak. More alarming to Sulayman Pasha than Daher's activities in Palestine were his incursions east of the Jordan River. In 1737 and 1738, Daher launched raids into the Jawlan (Golan) and Hauran, and attacked Damascus city. For threatening Damascus, the imperial government determined Daher was a threat to the all-important Hajj pilgrim caravan to Mecca, which was annually marshaled in Damascus and traditionally led by its governor. With Constantinople's sanction, Sulayman Pasha launched an abortive attack against Daher in 1738. The Banu Saqr then captured his brother, Salih, and handed him to Sulayman Pasha, who executed him, further embittering Daher toward the Saqr. Sulayman Pasha renewed his efforts to suppress the Zayadina in 1741, enlisting his nephew, Ibrahim Pasha of Sidon, who was defeated by Daher near Acre.

In September 1742, Sulayman Pasha besieged Tiberias for ninety days, with unprecedented orders from Constantinople to execute Daher. The latter proclaimed his loyalty to the Ottoman sultan, but failed to sway Sulayman Pasha during ensuing negotiations. Sulayman Pasha resumed the operation after his return to Damascus from the Hajj in July 1743. He died suddenly in August on the outskirts of Tiberias, and Daher used the opportunity to raid his camp.

Sulayman Pasha's successor, his nephew As'ad Pasha al-Azm, did not act against Daher. The following fourteen years were characterized by peace between Daher and Damascus, partly because As'ad Pasha was dissuaded by his brother's unsuccessful experience and preoccupied with domestic affairs. In late 1757, the Banu Sakhr and Sardiyya tribes launched an assault on the Hajj caravan on its return to Syria. Thousands of Muslim pilgrims were killed in the raid, including Sultan Osman III's sister. The attack shocked the government, and discredited the governor of Damascus, Husayn Pasha ibn Makki, for failing to ward off the Bedouin. Husayn Pasha had replaced As'ad Pasha, and among his priorities were subduing Daher. He lodged a complaint to the imperial government alleging Daher's involvement in the raid. Daher denied this and pressed for an investigation into the assault. To earn the government's favor, he purchased the looted goods of the caravan from the Bedouin, including the decorated banners representing the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the sovereignty of the sultan, and restored them to Sultan Mustafa III (Osman III had died on 30 October). Husayn Pasha was replaced by Uthman Pasha al-Kurji in 1760.

Control of Acre and Haifa

thumb|upright=1.2|A drawing of [[Acre, Israel|Acre, 1839.]]

Daher consolidated his authority over the port of Acre in a drawn-out process starting in the 1730s. Joudah views Daher's moves as "inevitable", considering he already controlled Acre's fertile countryside and needed "an outlet to the sea" and was motivated by "potential profits". Control of Acre would greatly improve his business potential, and the peace with Damascus under As'ad Pasha enabled Daher to focus his military resources against the city.

In 1743, Daher had his cousin Muhammad arrested and executed to remove him as a rival for influence in Acre. That year, Daher had requested the of Acre from Ibrahim Pasha, who, wary of Daher's growing power in the province, rejected the request. Daher took Acre by force, probably in 1744, and killed its . After mobilizing its ulema (Muslim scholars) and qadi (Islamic head judge) to petition the sultan on his behalf, in July 1746, Daher was formally appointed the of Acre. After completing a wall around Acre and other public works, Daher made it his new headquarters around 1750, relocating there from Deir Hanna. Afterward, Daher confiscated five villages in the coastal plain of Acre, Julis, Mazra'a, Makr, Judayda, and Sumayriyya, as personal estates, which he also developed. He installed water mills on the Na'aman River south of Acre and the Ga'aton River north of the city, both part of the 16th-century (endowment) of Sinan Pasha to which he paid a fixed amount yearly.

In 1757, Daher had expanded his holdings southward, along Palestine's northern coastal plain, taking control of Haifa, Tira, and Tantura, and the adjoining Mount Carmel. Ostensibly, Daher captured the harbor village of Haifa to eliminate the base established there by Maltese pirates, but he probably aimed to prevent the governors of Damascus from utilizing the port village, strategically positioned across the bay from Acre, as a launchpad against him, while also seeking another potential port for his domains. While As'ad Pasha had not acted against Daher's occupation of Haifa, Uthman Pasha sought to return the port to Damascene authority. Acting on Uthman Pasha's request, the governor of Sidon, Nu'man Pasha, dispatched 30 Maghrebi mercenaries on a vessel captained by a Frenchman to capture Haifa in May 1761. Upon arrival, Daher had the ship confiscated, its soldiers arrested, and its captain fined. The issue over Haifa's annexation was smoothed over with the assistance of Yaqub Agha, a Constantinople-based official with friendly ties to Daher. Yaqub Agha had a high-ranking official, the (chief eunuch) Sulayman Agha, revoke the imperial order sanctioning Uthman Pasha's attempt to capture the Haifa coast.

Family rebellions

thumb|upright=1.5|The holdings of the [[Zayadina under Daher in the Galilee and surrounding areas. Daher's seats are indicated in red, while the seats of other Zaydani sheikhs are in orange]]

To safeguard his interests in the Galilee, particularly after establishing headquarters in Acre, Daher installed his sons at strategic fortresses across the region. In the 1760s, many of his sons increasingly struggled against him and each other to expand their holdings in anticipation of their aging father's death. Besides support from elements of the Zayadina, Daher's sons maintained separate power bases, largely derived from their mothers' families, and formed alliances with other local powers.

In 1761, Daher had Uthman assassinate Sa'd, hitherto his chief adviser and a key figure behind his successes, in exchange for control of Shefa-Amr. Daher reneged after Sa'd's killing, prompting Uthman and his full-brothers Ahmad and Sa'd al-Din to besiege Shefa-Amr in 1765, but they were repulsed. In May 1766, Uthman renewed his rebellion against Daher but was again defeated. Mediation by Isma'il Shihab of Hasbaya culminated in a peace summit near Tyre where Daher and Uthman reconciled and Uthman was given control of Nazareth.

In September 1767, a conflict between Daher and his son Ali, who controlled Safed, broke out over the former's refusal to cede Deir Hanna and Deir al-Qassi. Before the dispute, Ali had been a key supporter of his father, helping suppress dissent among his brothers and quashing external threats. Daher's forces marched on Safed, forcing Ali's capitulation. Daher pardoned Ali, but gave him Deir al-Qassi. The intra-family conflict resumed weeks later, with Ali and his full brother Sa'id poised against Daher and Uthman. Ibrahim Sabbagh, Daher's financial adviser, brokered a settlement giving Sa'id control of the villages of Tur'an and Hittin. Joined by Daher's eldest son, Salibi of Tiberias, Ali took over Deir Hanna and defeated Daher, who had demobilized his troops and was relying on local volunteers from Acre. Daher remobilized his Maghrebi mercenaries and defeated Ali, prompting him to flee Deir Hanna in October. Nevertheless, he pardoned Ali for a fine and ceded him the village. By December 1767, Daher's intra-family disputes had subsided.

The rebellions by Daher's sons were nearly always backed by the governor of Damascus, Uthman Pasha, in a bid to sustain internal dissent and undermine Daher. The latter lodged complaints to the imperial government about Uthman Pasha's support for his rebellious sons at least once in 1765. Daher received the support of the governor of Sidon, Muhammad Pasha al-Azm, an opponent of Uthman Pasha who sought to restore the Azms to office in Damascus. While Sidon's backing had no practical military value, the support of his nominal superior provided Daher with official legitimacy amid his family's insurrections.

Alliance with the Metawalis of Jabal Amil

Daher's takeover of Safed and the western Galilee removed the barriers between him and the Twelver Shia Muslim clans of Jabal Amil, the predominantly Twelver Shia hill country east of Tyre and Sidon, who were referred to in the sources as the 'Metawalis'. Their territory was wedged between the Shihabs in Mount Lebanon and the Zayadina in northern Palestine. In 1743, Nassar, the sheikh of the Ali al-Saghirs, the dominant Metawali clan in the Bilad Bishara nahiye, assisted government forces in their campaign against Daher. Around 1750, Nassar's successor, his son Daher al-Nassar, called for Daher's backing against the Shihabs, who had earlier killed hundreds of Metawali villagers and sacked the nahiyes of Jabal Amil. With Daher's support, the Ali al-Saghirs routed the Shihabs at Marjayoun. Daher al-Nassar died that year and was succeeded by his brother, Nasif al-Nassar, who soon emerged as the most powerful Metawali sheikh.

Nasif and the other Metawali sheikhs backed Daher's son Uthman during his rebellion against him in 1766, and then his other son Ali in 1767. Amid the conflict, Daher captured the fortified Metawali villages of Bassa and Yaroun on the borders of Zaydani territory. While the contemporary Rukayni and the near contemporary Mikha'il Sabbagh agree that the capture of the two villages were the cause of the subsequent battles between Daher and Nasif, they diverge on the other details. After a series of clashes, the two sides fought at the village of Tarbikha on 6 October 1766, which Sabbagh claims ended in Daher's victory and Rukayni claiming Nasif as the decisive victor. Thereafter, Daher's Maghrebi mercenaries supposedly employed a ruse by capturing two of Nasif's yong sons from Nasif's headquarters, the Tebnine castle, compelling Nasif to negotiate terms. This account is considered a local legend by the historian Stefan Winter, and Philipp deems Rukayni more reliable for these events.

Despite their conflict, Daher and the Metawalis shared an interest in limiting the power of Sidon and keeping the Druze emirs of Mount Lebanon at bay. Daher's son Uthman mediated an end to the conflict and secured a treaty between Daher and Nasif, dated by Rukayni to 24 November 1767. According to its terms, Daher would keep control of Bassa and Yaroun, represent the Metawalis in their fiscal and other relations with the governor of Sidon, and reduce their tax obligations to Sidon by a quarter. He promised his backing for the Metawalis in any confrontation with the Druze, in return for the Metawalis' military support. In effect, though without official recognition, Daher became the of Jabal Amil, greatly expanding his territory. The backing of some 10,000 Metawali fighters significantly boosted his military potential, and the Metawalis "remained faithful allies ... to the end", in the words of Philipp, participating in fifteen subsequent campaigns against Daher's foes. The alliance secured Daher's northern borders, allowing him to focus on operations in the south.

Zenith

In 1768, the Ottoman imperial government granted Daher the title of 'Sheikh of Acre, Emir of Nazareth, Tiberias, Safed, and Sheikh of all of Galilee', a recognition of the political status "he hitherto enjoyed informally", according to Joudah. Daher was at the peak of his power, having consolidated his alliance with the Metawalis and reconciled with his sons. He possessed substantial financial resources, derived mainly from Acre's lucrative cotton trade, which he dominated during the preceding two decades. Despite securing his position at home, he became especially vulnerable to outside threats. Daher had gradually lost his main allies in Constantinople, with Ya'qub Agha having been executed in the 1760s and Sulayman Agha dying in 1770. While the war with Russia preoccupied the imperial government, Uthman Pasha remained committed to eliminating Daher. In September 1770, Uthman Pasha secured the appointment of his son, Darwish Pasha, as governor of Sidon, while recruiting the Shihab-led Druze of Mount Lebanon as allies. In October, Uthman Pasha entered Palestine to make the , the governor's annual tour to collect the taxes from his province, which funded the Hajj pilgrimage caravan. He threatened an assault on Acre, leading Daher to strengthen its fortifications and arm every adult male in the city, Muslim and Christian alike, with a rifle, two pistols and a sabre.

Alliance with Ali Bey and war with Damascus

thumb|upright=1.75|The campaigns of [[Ali Bey al-Kabir against the Ottomans and Abu al-Dhahab's campaign against Daher's territories in Palestine]]

Bereft of support in Constantinople, Daher appealed to his ally Ali Bey al-Kabir, the increasingly autonomous mamluk ruler of Egypt and the Hejaz (western Arabia), to intervene against their mutual foe, Uthman Pasha. Ali Bey, seeking to expand his influence to Syria for strategic purposes, had a mutual interest in subduing Damascus. Political conditions favored the two leaders' cause, as the imperial government, bogged down in war with Russia, was not well positioned to confront a joint offensive by Ali Bey and Daher.

Assault on Damascus

The offensive was launched in November 1770 with Ali Bey dispatching land and sea expeditions to Palestine under his lieutenant Ismail Bey. The Egyptian troops cleared Uthman Pasha's subordinates from Gaza and Ramla without resistance. Daher and Ismail Bey then occupied Jaffa, giving them control over most of Palestine. In late January 1771, Daher's proposal to attack Uthman Pasha as he was leading the Hajj caravan was rejected by Ismail Bey due to the risk of harm to the pilgrims. In the view of historian Abdul-Karim Rafeq, this represented Daher's failure to take charge of the campaign. In early March, Daher and Ismail Bey set up headquarters at Muzayrib, a fortified waystation on the Hajj pilgrimage road. While waiting to intercept Uthman Pasha on his return from Mecca, Daher launched his own operations in the Damascus province, sending his son Ahmad to capture Irbid in Jabal Ajlun, other subordinates to collect taxes in the Jawlan, including Quneitra, and his son Ali to raid the Nu'aym tribe in the Hauran. Whether due to the arrival of relief troops in Damascus and/or another dispute over attacking Uthman Pasha in the presence of pilgrims, Daher and Ismail Bey decamped from Muzayrib.

Ali Bey was nevertheless encouraged by his coalition's military successes in Syria. He dispatched a new and larger force under his general Abu al-Dhahab, which arrived in Ramla on 17 May. During the subsequent campaign against Damascus, Daher sent forces led by his sons. Abu al-Dhahab, with the bulk of Daher's men and the Metawalis, reached Sa'sa' on 2 June. The following day, the rebel allies, with Daher's son Ali leading the vanguard, defeated Ottoman troops at the Damascus suburb of Darayya and closed in on the city. On 6 June, Uthman Pasha fled and two days later the Damascenes surrendered to Abu al-Dhahab. While the main body of their troops were in Damascus, Daher and Nasif led a separate assault against Sidon, which had been vacated by Darwish Pasha on 11 June. They captured the city and installed their deputies there.

On 18 June, Abu al-Dhahab surprised his allies and opponents alike by unilaterally withdrawing from Damascus. A chronicler of the period noted that the Damascenes were "completely astonished at this amazing event". The 18th and 19th-century accounts reason that Abu al-Dhahab withdrew because Ismail Bey either convinced him to be wary of Daher and his sons' insolent and unyielding ambition or the dangerous folly of allying with Christian Russia against the interests of Islam, as represented by the Ottoman sultan. Rafeq holds these were possibly contributing factors, but that Abu al-Dhahab's own ambitions to unseat Ali Bey likely drove him to quit the campaign and return to Egypt. The sudden turn of events and an attack by the Druze warriors of Yusuf Shihab compelled Daher and Nasif to quit Sidon on 20 June. Darwish Pasha reentered Sidon and Uthman Pasha returned to Damascus on 26 June.

Captures of Jaffa and Sidon

thumb|upright=1.5|Map showing phases of expansion of the territory controlled by Daher and his subordinates, in

Although Abu al-Dhahab's withdrawal "embarrassed" Daher, he was heartened by Ali Bey's determination to resume the campaign and promise to send replacement troops, according to Rafeq. Philipp comments that despite Daher's increased vulnerability, he "was actually able, after the withdrawal of the Egyptians, to expand his realm as never before". Daher moved to assert control in Palestine, first capturing Jaffa in August 1771, driving out its governor Ahmad Bey Tuqan. He then took over the cotton-producing Bani Sa'b nahiye (centered around Qaqun), which was held by Ahmad's brother Mustafa Bey. He fortified and garrisoned Jaffa with 2,000 men, preparing it for the arrival of Ali Bey's forces. By the end of August, Uthman Pasha's deputies restored his control over Ramla and Gaza, but were unable to retake Jaffa.

Later in August, Daher moved to eliminate Uthman Pasha's last significant ally in Palestine, the Jarrars of Jabal Nablus, by pressing his forces' nearly year-long siege of their fort at Sanur. The sheikh of the Jarrars appealed for Uthman Pasha's intervention. Uthman Pasha used the Jarrars' appeal as a pretext to launch a campaign against Daher. Daher and his sons joined with their Metawali allies near Lake Hula in anticipation of the governor's troops. In the ensuing battle, on 2 September, Uthman Pasha's large army was nearly annihilated in a surprise assault; most drowned in the River Jordan after Daher's forces blocked the other escape routes. This was a decisive victory for Daher, who entered Acre triumphantly on 5 September with the spoils of Uthman Pasha's camp. He was celebrated by the city's residents and had been welcomed with honorary gun salutes by the fortified villages he passed on the way. He also received congratulations from the French merchant ships at the port of Acre. Daher's victory encouraged Ali Bey to relaunch his Syrian campaign.

thumb|upright=1.2|left|Drawing of [[Lake Huleh, 1857]]

Daher renewed his efforts to take Sidon and following an ultimatum he issued, Darwish Pasha vacated the city on 14 October. Yusuf Shihab, an ally of Uthman Pasha, intervened and had his Druze fighters escort Darwish Pasha back to Sidon the next day. Yusuf Shihab then moved against the Metawalis, who had been encroaching on his territory. With Daher's military backing, the Metawalis routed Yusuf Shihab at Nabatieh on 20 October. The Druze contingent guarding Sidon under Ali Jumblatt subsequently withdrew. On 23 October, Daher and the Metawalis occupied the city, while Ali Bey's troops took Gaza and Ramla. The day before, Uthman Pasha and his sons were dismissed from the governorships of Damascus, Sidon and Tripoli. While Uthman Pasha was replaced by Muhammad Pasha al-Azm as governor of Damascus, no governor was appointed to Sidon due to Daher's control of the city.

Daher's son Ali continued his campaigns across Damascus province, taking over the fortified village of Bayt Jibrin between Ramla and Hebron in November before proceeding against the countryside around Damascus. In a testament to Daher's power by this point, the new governor of Damascus felt compelled to request Daher's permission to embark on the Hajj pilgrimage caravan that year. Muhammad Pasha had failed to make the required collections to fund the endeavor since most of Palestine and the Hauran were in the hands of Daher or his allies, including now the Jarrars, who dominated the hill country around Nablus. Two of the Jarrar sheikhs, Hamdan and Khalil, had defected to Daher in protest of Muhammad Pasha's appointment of their enemy, Mustafa Bey Tuqan, to collect the on his behalf. With the Jarrars' backing, Daher attempted to expand his zone of influence to Nablus, the commercial center of Palestine and its agriculturally-rich hinterland. Toward the end of 1771, he besieged Nablus. The city was defended by the Tuqan and Nimr families, urban rivals of the Jarrars, and their peasant riflemen. After nine days of clashes, Daher withdrew to avoid a costly stalemate. As he departed Nablus, his forces raided many of the city's satellite villages, from which its peasant defenders originated. Although he could not conquer Nablus and its countryside, Daher's domain by the end of 1771 extended from Sidon to Jaffa and included an influential presence in the Hauran.

Setbacks

The imperial government appointed a (supreme army commander), Uthman Pasha al-Wakil, to Damascus to support the governor against Ali Bey and the rebel chiefs led by Daher on 14 January 1772. Despite his high rank, Wakil lacked sufficient troops and funds to fight Daher and, under the pressure of Damascenes desperate for economic relief from the wars and instability, engaged in diplomacy. In May 1772, the power balance again shifted, with Ali Bey fleeing Egypt amid a power struggle with Abu al-Dhahab and taking refuge with Daher. With Daher's powerful ally unseated, local officials moved against Daher. In late May, a former governor of Gaza, Abu Maraq, took control of the city while Muhammad Tuqan (probably Mustafa Bey's brother) took over Jaffa from Daher. In the meantime, Deli Khalil Pasha marshalled his troops in Mount Lebanon in preparation for a joint assault with Yusuf Shihab against Sidon. On 10 June, their forces were defeated by Daher and the Metawalis outside Sidon. Eight days later, at Daher's direction, Russian ships bombarded Beirut to divert Druze and Ottoman attention away from Sidon. The Russians withdrew on 23 June after Yusuf Shihab bribed them. The aftermath remained chaotic, with Daher's wins against the Druze and Damascus indecisive, his forces contending with a difficult siege to retake Jaffa, and Ali Bey remaining focused on regaining control of Egypt.

According to Crecelius, Daher and Ali Bey considered their "fates mutually dependent" and hoped to "consolidate their position in Palestine" for Ali Bey to launch an effective attempt to regain control of Egypt. Barring that, they would be left "exposed" and "hard pressed to resist both the hostile forces gathering in Syria and the powerful mamluk army of Egypt" under Abu al-Dhahab. After eight months of siege, Daher's forces recaptured Jaffa on 16 February 1773, paving the way for Ali Bey to embark on his Egypt campaign. Daher appointed his cousin and son-in-law Karim al-Ayyub as governor of Jaffa and Gaza and sent troops under his son Salibi to back Ali Bey. On 28 April, Ali Bey was wounded and died in captivity and Salibi was slain by the forces of Abu al-Dhahab in Egypt. With this came an end to the alliance that politically and economically aligned Egypt and Palestine for the first time since the early 16th century. While their attempts to unite their territories were unsuccessful, their rule posed the most serious domestic challenge to Ottoman rule in the 18th century. Ali Bey was "the rallying point of his allies", in the words of Rafeq, and Daher "was politically and militarily embarrassed" by his loss, "in spite of the fact that the weakened 'Ali Bey had become more of a problem to him than an asset". Up to that point, Daher had rebuffed multiple attempts by Wakil and Muhammad Pasha to reconcile and abandon Ali Bey, though Daher likely suspected these were attempts by Damascus to buy time to move against him.

Tentative recognition by the Ottomans

The authorities in Damascus shored up their position in Beirut, where they had installed Ahmad Bey al-Jazzar to guard it against Daher in 1772. Yusuf Shihab opposed Jazzar's entrenchment in the city but his request for Jazzar's exit was rejected by the authorities, as Beirut was a key maritime connection with Constantinople and the only port the Ottomans still controlled between Egypt and Tripoli. As such, the Shihabs allied with Daher and the Metawalis, which suited Daher, who was in need of allies amid the growing threat from Egypt under his foe Abu al-Dhahab. In June, the new governor of Damascus, Mustafa Pasha, opened negotiations with Daher through the French consul of Sidon whereupon Daher declared he was no rebel and sought only to defend his people's rights. The talks broke down when Russian ships commanded by Count Orlov, which had been cruising the eastern Mediterranean since June 1772, bombarded Beirut on 6 July at Daher's behest, in conjunction with a land force sent by Daher under Dinkizli.

On 27 August, Daher received notice from Abu al-Dhahab to relinquish Gaza, Ramla, Jaffa and Nablus (likely meaning the Nablus countryside controlled by the Jarrars), all territories that Ali Bey had entrusted to Abu al-Dhahab during the 1771 campaign and which he claimed the Ottoman sultan had ratified. Shifting focus to the threat from Egypt, Daher recalled his men from Beirut, but sent his son Ali to assist the Shihabs in defeating an Ottoman force in the Beqaa Valley on 30 September. In early October, the siege of Beirut by the Shihabs' Druze forces and the Russian navy compelled Jazzar to quit the city and take refuge with Daher, who agreed to safeguard him in return for his services. Days later, Daher commissioned Jazzar to collect the taxes from the Jaffa-Jerusalem area, but Jazzar absconded with the transport animals and weapons Daher equipped him with to Damascus.

As they could not rein in Daher through force, the Ottomans resolved to negotiate with him. To appease Daher, the Damascus authorities returned to him the livestock and munitions Jazzar had seized and formally recognized his son Ahmad's subgovernorship of Jabal Ajlun. Daher, convinced of an impending military assault by Abu al-Dhahab, who was indeed preparing troops and levying taxes in Egypt for such a campaign, sought to make peace with the Ottomans and welcomed Wakil's overtures. During the negotiations, mediated by the pro-Damascus Metawali sheikh Qabalan and a Damascene official Husayn Effendi, Daher dropped his initial demand for appointment as (provincial governor) of Sidon, agreed to pay his tax arrears, timely pay his future obligations and Sidon's customary funds for the Hajj caravan, and vowed loyalty to the state. An agreement with Wakil was reached in late January 1774, granting Daher a pardon from the sultan, the (life-term tax arm) of Sidon Eyalet (or more specifically the parts he already directly controlled), and the of the sanjaks or nahiyes of Nablus, Gaza, Ramla, Jaffa and Ajlun. The letter of appointment from Wakil, dated to 9 February, was proclaimed on 17 February in Daher's court in Acre, where he was further awarded the (robe of honor).

Wakil's agreement was subject to ratification by the new sultan, Abdul Hamid I (), who acceded in January. In July, the sultan dismissed Wakil from Syria, and signed a peace treaty with Russia. The agreements reached between Daher and Wakil after years'-long negotiations had become "totally worthless", in the words of historian Amnon Cohen. Further, the imperial government, freed up from the Russian war, was now better positioned to focus resources on Syria. Muhammad Pasha, who had been restored as governor of Damascus in October 1773, advised Daher to pursue a new agreement. Daher's outreach to Grand Vizier Izzet Mehmed Pasha led to the sultan's issue of a (sultanic order) in January 1775 granting Daher a pardon and restating his financial obligations, but not conferring upon him either the desired of Sidon or the rights of the districts of Palestine under Damascene jurisdiction (i.e. Jaffa, Nablus, Ramla, Gaza and Ajlun), which he controlled in practice. Formal recognition was restricted to his role as a subordinate to the governor of Sidon.

Downfall

Abu al-Dhahab's campaign

Conflict between Daher and his sons resumed in the summer of 1774 as they vied to take his place at the head of the Zaydani sheikhdom. Ali renewed his demands for control of more Galilee villages and Ahmad and Sa'id had consolidated control over Jabal Ajlun and parts of the Nablus countryside. With Ahmad's backing, Daher attacked Ali in the village of Rameh on 11 July, but was repulsed. Abu al-Dhahab considered the internal strife an opportune moment to strike against Daher and allied with Ali. Abu al-Dhahab launched his campaign in Palestine in March 1775, with the imperial government's approval or encouragement. Gaza surrendered to Abu al-Dhahab on 1 April, followed immediately by Ramla. Daher's forces in Jaffa refused to capitulate and the mamluks besieged the town on 3 April, capturing it on 20 May. To intimidate the inhabitants and defenders of Daher's domains not to resist his forces, Abu al-Dhahab had all the men of Jaffa killed, the women and children taken captive, and the town plundered.

News of the Jaffa massacre spurred panic and mass flight by the residents of Acre on 23 May. Daher departed the following day for Sidon, "weakened by the desertion of his son 'Ali and sensing the irresistible nature of Muhammad Bey's [Abu al-Dhahab's] coming attack", according to Crecelius. Ali subsequently entered Acre and declared himself governor, though he withdrew to Safed the next week upon the orders of Abu al-Dhahab. Acre's last defenders surrendered the city to a small mamluk naval force on 30 May, and Abu al-Dhahab appointed Murad Bey as its governor. The mamluks proceeded to conquer Safed, putting Ali to flight, and their naval forces had gained the surrenders of Sidon and Beirut, prompting Daher to take refuge with the Metawalis in the mountains.

On 10 June, Abu al-Dhahab became ill suddenly and died, prompting the immediate withdrawal of his mamluk troops to Egypt. Daher reentered Acre two days later and, with the assistance of Dinkizli reestablished order in the city, which had been plundered by Abu al-Dhahab's forces. Daher probably restored control over Jaffa and Gaza as well, but Sidon remained out of his hands, as the Ottomans quickly sent their own appointee to the city. Although Daher was able to preserve his rule, the mamluk campaign sapped his strength. Neither his sons nor his allies among the Metawalis and the Druze had responded to his calls for military aid against Abu al-Dhahab. The contemporary French historian Volney blamed the avarice of Daher's chief minister Ibrahim Sabbagh for alienating Daher from his sons and allies. In particular, he cited Sabbagh's failure to offer sums to the Metawali and Druze leaders and his refusal to send aid to the besieged inhabitants of Jaffa, for the standby posture of Daher's allies.

Siege of Acre and death

The death of Abu al-Dhahab did not deter the Ottomans from moving against Daher. On 7 August, a flotilla under the (admiral) Hasan Pasha al-Jaza'iri arrived outside Haifa, whose garrison of Maghrebi mercenaries immediately surrendered the town. Hasan Pasha's principal assignment was to collect the tax arrears from Daher that had been accumulating since 1768, with or without eliminating him in the process. Along with this naval expedition, the Ottomans organized a land army led by Muhammad Pasha. Wary of Daher's capabilities, Muhammad Pasha moved his forces slowly to first determine the outcome of Hasan Pasha's campaign. Daher was ensconced in Acre with Dinkizli's Maghrebi troops when Hasan Pasha's flotilla appeared before the city's walls. Negotiations followed regarding payment of the arrears.

There are several accounts about the talks' collapse, all involving sabotage by Daher's chief advisers Sabbagh and Dinkizli and animated by their mutual hostility. Most early sources hold Daher was prepared to move forward with the required payment but was dissuaded by Sabbagh against the counsel of Dinkizli, who advocated a settlement. In this version of events, Dinkizli preferred to bribe Hasan Pasha and, according to the Lebanese chronicler Haydar Ahmad al-Shihabi, had secured a pardon for Daher in return for a lesser settlement of the arrears. Sabbagh argued that Daher lacked funds, which Daher affirmed, and that Hasan Pasha's flotilla could be repulsed. Dinkizli advised Daher to extract the necessary funds from Sabbagh personally, accusing him of having accumulated substantial wealth during the preceding years. When Daher sided with Sabbagh, Dinkizli secretly ordered his mercenaries to hold their fire against Hasan Pasha's ships, citing the inviolabality of the sultan as caliph of Islam. The other version of events, cited by Sabbagh's grandsons, Mikha'il Sabbagh and Abbud Sabbagh, holds that Daher had agreed to pay Hasan Pasha and the sultan but that Dinkizli betrayed Daher in the negotiations, secretly encouraging the admiral to capture Acre and confiscate Daher's and Sabbagh's wealth.

According to Rafeq and Joudah, Hasan Pasha was "not interested" in the success of the negotiations in any case. He bombarded Acre, and Daher's Maghrebi artillerymen responded with cannon fire, damaging two Ottoman ships. The following day, Hasan Pasha's fleet resumed shelling Acre without receiving any return fire from the city's artillerymen, evidently due to Dinkizli's orders. Realizing his long-time lieutenant's betrayal, Daher attempted to flee Acre on 22 August, escaping through the Bab al-Saraya gate that led to its northern gardens. As he exited the city, Daher was fired upon by his Maghrebi mercenaries, with a bullet striking his neck and causing him to fall off his horse. A Maghrebi soldier then decapitated him and delivered his head to Hasan Pasha, who took it to Constantinople, "formal evidence of the elimination of one of the sultan's most tenacious and persistent rebels", according to Crecelius.

Aftermath

Sabbagh escaped Acre, but eventually entered the custody of Hasan Pasha, who thereupon confiscated the treasures Sabbagh and Daher had stored in Acre's warehouses and French merchant facilities and the Terra Santa convent. Sabbagh was then executed. Dinkizli was ostensibly rewarded by Hasan Pasha with the governorship of Gaza, but died or was killed on the way to assuming office. Daher's governor in Jaffa, Muhammad Abu Ghurrah, put up initial resistance but eventually escaped to the Galilee. Hasan Pasha transferred control of Acre to Jazzar, whom the Ottomans had appointed (garrison commander), on 19 September; the Ottomans promoted him as governor of Sidon in mid-October and he governed the province from Acre until his death in 1804.

With their fortified villages, private armies and a supportive population, Daher's sons remained ensconced in the Galilee countryside and represented the main obstacle to Jazzar's authority over the province. Daher's son Uthman defected to Jazzar in return for keeping control of Shefa-Amr and a promise to appoint him (chief of chiefs) of Safed, but Ali, with the support of his brothers Ahmad, Sa'id and Salih, remained incalcitrant and controlled all the Galilee from Tiberias and Safed in the east to Majd al-Krum and Abu Sinan in the west. After an abortive assault on Jazzar's forces at Amqa, Ali was defeated in a series of battles, culminating in a lengthy siege of Deir Hanna, which fell on 22 July 1776. The village's extensive fortifications were afterward dismantled. Ali launched a counteroffensive but was assassinated by agents of Muhammad Pasha in November 1776, signaling the end to Zaydani power.

Volney, who wrote the first European biography of Daher in 1787, lists three main reasons for Daher's failure. First, the lack of "internal good order and justness of principle". Secondly, the early concessions he made to his children. Third, and most of all, the avarice of Sabbagh. In the assessment of Crecelius, the "inability" of Daher and Ali Bey as rebellious leaders "to establish permanently autonomous regimes in the period of greatest Ottoman weakness" testifies to "the skill of Ottoman statecraft and to the resilience of the Ottoman Empire in being able to obtain revenues and products from provinces over which it had had to relinquish military control" in the 18th century.

Economic policies and development

Monopolization of cotton trade

European demand for Palestinian cotton skyrocketed in the early 18th century and the cotton trade was linked to all of Daher’s activities: his establishment of law and order secured the flow of cotton to the French merchants of Acre and stimulated the immigration of peasants to its hinterland, which further boosted cultivation; profits from the trade fueled Daher's political and military power, in turn sustaining his commercial success. Already an established trader by the 1720s, Daher first engaged the French merchants in 1730, when he agreed to settle debts owed to them by his brother Sa'd. Daher dealt with the merchants throughout the decade, obtaining cash advances from them to settle tax obligations to the authorities in exchange for exclusive purchase rights of the cotton and wheat from his villages. In 1737, he and the French consul of Sidon, who had overall responsibility over the French merchants, collaborated in regulating a standard unit of weight. Nevertheless, the French remained wary of intensive dealing with Daher to avoid alienating the Ottoman establishment. Daher's successful defense of his domains from the governor of Damascus in 1742–1743 was a turning point; afterward, trade relations with the French gradually became systemic. Around that time, Daher and the French vice consul of Acre, Joseph Blanc, arranged for the latter to pay Daher's tax obligations and supply him with firearms in exchange for purchase rights of all the cotton and wheat of his domains. Daher became increasingly wealthy to the chagrin of the consul of Sidon, who complained Daher and the other sheikhs were becoming "too powerful and too rich ... at our expense".

With his control of Acre solidified by 1750, Daher effectively monopolized the transport and sale of cotton. The French attempted to organize against this in 1751 by dictating prices well below the rate set by Daher, who responded with a trade ban on the French. A French merchant's letter described Daher's empowered status during the standoff: "He was no longer what he was ten years ago; today, he makes the laws." That case ended in a compromise, but tensions escalated through the early 1750s. Daher's attempts to circumvent the French, such as by marketing to English merchants, failed since the French maintained unrivaled shipping capacity from the Syrian coast. At the same time, Daher's control over production and overland transport made him indispensable; in the words of Philipp, Daher was "the sole middleman" and the French "had to deal exclusively with him". Daher strictly enforced his monopoly, jailing merchants and local brokers for bypassing him. He extended his monopoly to the cotton-producing region of Bani Sa'b and the valleys of Jabal Nablus; there, the Muslim merchants of Nablus, especially the Tuqan family, had traditionally sold the output to European merchants from the port of Jaffa, but Daher gained control over the trade with his takeover of Jaffa in 1771.

Daher's price control of the local cash crops prevented "exploitation" of the peasants by European merchants and their "manipulation of the prices", according to Joudah. Daher and his local deputies adopted a policy of aiding peasants cultivate and harvest their farmlands as a means to ensure the steady supply of agricultural products for export. These benefits included loans and the free distribution of seeds. Financial burdens on the peasants were also reduced as Daher offered tax relief during dry seasons or poor harvests. This same tax relief was extended to newcomers cultivating new farmlands. Moreover, Daher assumed responsibility for outstanding payments the peasants owed to merchants from credit-based transactions, if the merchants could provide proof of unsatisfactory payment. According to Philipp, Daher "had the good business sense not to exploit peasants to the point of destruction, but kept his financial demands to a more moderate level". He regularly paid the authorities their financial dues, ensuring a degree of stability in his relationship with the sultanate.

Urban renewal

Daher's rule radically changed the urban landscape of the Galilee. He invested the wealth he amassed from the cotton trade into developing his domains, especially northern Palestine's key towns, namely Tiberias, Nazareth, Acre and Haifa, all of which had been small and decaying villages prior to his rule. Yazbak credits Daher for these towns' revival and socioeconomic rise, which put them on par with Nablus, hitherto Palestine's principal commercial center. Daher and his family built fortresses, watchtowers, warehouses, and khans (caravanserais). These buildings improved the domestic administration and general security of the Galilee. Today, many are in a state of disrepair and remain outside the scope of Israel's cultural preservation laws. With the restoration and refortification of Acre and the establishment of the secondary harbor town of Haifa, the Galilee's ties with the Mediterranean world were significantly strengthened.

Daher governed with religious tolerance and encouraged the immigration of Christians and Jews and their participation in the local economy, at least partly due to their relative ease in dealing with Christian European merchants, the financial support networks many of them maintained in Damascus or Constantinople, and their role in service industries. Daher's territory became a haven for Melkites and Greek Orthodox from other parts of Ottoman Syria, who migrated there for better trade and employment opportunities.

Tiberias

thumb|right|The Omari Mosque in Tiberias, built by Daher

Before Daher made it his first seat of power, Tiberias had been described by a Dutch traveler as "little more than a collection of ruins" with a few houses. Daher built fortifications around Tiberias in 1739–1740. Part of the walls originally ran along the shore of the Sea of Galilee and had eighteen towers. The fortifications were severely damaged in the 1837 earthquake. Most of the walls have been destroyed or form part of modern structures, while eight of the towers are extant. On the northeastern section of the fortifications, Daher's son Salibi built a two-story square citadel with four round towers. The citadel is extant and, as of 2001, its upper floor was operated as a restaurant, while its lower floor contained an art gallery. The citadel is locally often misidentified as the "Crusader castle/fortress".

In 1740, Daher invited Rabbi Hayyim ben Jacob Abulafia of Smyrna to settle in Tiberias with his Jewish congregants, allotting them lands and financial assistance to build their houses and a synagogue and school. To stimulate commerce, Daher exempted them from taxation for three years. Daher believed their connections with the Jewish diaspora would encourage economic development in Tiberias, which the Jews considered particularly holy. His policies fostered the growth of the Jewish community. Many Jews in Safed moved to Tiberias in the 1740s to take advantage of better opportunities in that city and avoid the onerous taxation of their governor, Daher's son Ali. Muslims were also settled in Tiberias. Daher built a mosque in the center of the town, today known after him as the Omari Mosque or the Zahiri Mosque. It consists of a prayer hall, a portico and a minaret. It was built with alternating white and black stone, typical of the architectural style of Daher's building works. While there have been restorations since it was first constructed in the 1740s, the mosque retains its original plan.

Nazareth

thumb|right|The [[Seraya of Nazareth, built by Daher]]

From the late 1730s, Daher made Nazareth his seat and later his summer residence,

the Seraya. The Seraya later served as Nazareth's municipal headquarters until 1991. Nazareth’s strategic importance stemmed from its position in the high hills overlooking the fertile Marj Ibn Amer. Daher secured it with a garrison, preventing Bedouin raids. This encouraged its repopulation, especially attracting Christians drawn by Nazareth's religious importance. The Christian community prospered and grew, receiving an influx of Maronites and Greek Orthodox from Mount Lebanon and Transjordan, respectively.

thumb|right|[[Greek Orthodox Church of the Annunciation|St. Gabriel Church in Nazareth was built under the auspices of Daher's rule ]]

By the 1760s, three churches were built in the growing town for the Roman Catholics, Greek Orthodox and Maronites: Daher allowed the Franciscans to build churches in 1741 and 1754 on sites Christians associated with the life of Jesus and allowed the Greek Orthodox to build St. Gabriel's Church over a ruined Crusader church, and, in 1750, to enlarge St. George's Church. Commenting on Nazareth's resurgence under Daher, the contemporary traveler Giovanni Mariti wrote Daher "had philosophy enough to rise above the prejudices of religion, and sufficient abilities to enable him to discover, on the first view, the moral and physical situation of places ... His policy rightly foresaw, that the affection which the Christians had for Nazareth would draw thither a great number of them. On this account he received them with open arms; and, for their convenience, enlarged such of the houses as were too small and confined."

Acre

thumb|right|Section of the walls of Acre built by Daher in 1750

After his takeover of Acre, Daher launched an extensive and rapid redevelopment of the city, building its walls, roads and public institutions, including s (caravanserais), bazaars, mosques, churches, bathhouses and coffeehouses. Although considerable in their extent, Daher's wall was designed to ward off pirates and Bedouin raiders, and could not defend well against the Ottoman military. Under Jazzar, major reconstruction of the walls was undertaken and the new walls largely remain in place to the present day. Part of Daher's contributions are extant, mainly a section of the northeastern wall, and are characterized by small stone blocks. An inscription dated to 1750 on a marble slab that was removed from this part of the wall credits Daher as the builder:

thumb|left|The Khan al-Shawarda caravanserai was restored by Daher

Among the ruined Crusader and Mamluk-era structures Daher repurposed or restored were the caravanserais of Khan al-Shawarda and its Burj al-Sultan tower and Khan al-Shunah. The Crusader plan and main structure of Khan al-Shunah was preserved by Daher in his restoration of the building in 1764, and it remained in use as an inn and market for traders until Haifa overtook Acre as the commercial center of the region in the late 19th century. It thereafter became housing for the poor. The original structure of the Suq al-Abyad (the White Bazaar), located in the northeastern corner of the walled city, was built by Daher, though most of the present structure dates to an 1815 reconstruction by Acre's governor, Sulayman Pasha. In 1748, Daher commissioned the construction of the Muallaq Mosque. The building had been used as a synagogue; after Daher converted it for Muslim use, he compensated Jewish worshippers with property elsewhere in the city. The Zaytuna Mosque was built in Acre during his rule at the initiative of Hajj Muhammad al-Sadiq, or the local scholar Muhammad Shadi al-Farid, who financed its construction.

Security and a raft of financial incentives encouraged economic renewal and a constant migration of Christians and Muslims to both Acre and the surrounding villages from neighboring regions and later, from more distant lands. Daher's mild disposition, religious tolerance and lowering of taxes and customs all served to attract new arrivals, including many merchants from Sidon seeking to avoid the heavy exactions of its governors. To further stimulate Acre's growth, he invited Greek Orthodox Christians from Cyprus to settle in the city. The Melkite patriarch was based in Acre between 1765 and 1768, and Christians became the largest religious group in the city by the late 18th century. The largest Christian community in Acre, the Melkites, built the city's largest church, St. Andrew's Church, in 1764, while the Maronites built St. Mary's Church for their congregation in 1750. As a testament to the exceptional prosperity Christians enjoyed under Daher, no further churches were built under the auspices of the less tolerant successive rulers of Acre and the Galilee. The growing economic importance of Acre also drew Turkish and Arab merchants from Damascus, joining their French, English and Dutch counterparts. Acre's population skyrocketed from about 300 at the start of the 18th century to 20,000 by the 1760s, making it the third largest city in Syria after Damascus and Aleppo and "the thriving meeting point for east and west in commerce and culture and the vibrant crossroads for international trade", according to historian Mahmoud Yazbak.

Haifa

thumb|upright=1.2|The walled harbor town of [[Haifa, founded and fortified by Daher, 1839]]

Daher similarly redeveloped Haifa, though on a smaller scale. He ended its long-established smuggling operations and its use as a haven for Maltese pirates. Between 1765 and 1769, Daher had the old Haifa demolished and rebuilt at a site to the southeast. While the old village was situated on a plain, the new town, which remained a port along the Haifa Bay, was built on a narrow strip of land at the northern foot of Mount Carmel to make it easier to defend by land. He dug wells for its water supply and built a wall around the new town with a tower, a custom's house, a (governor's house) for his deputy and a small souk to serve the ships docked there. Daher's wall had four towers and two gates, which remained standing at least until the early 19th century, when David Roberts described and sketched the wall. Daher's two-story, square tower was known as Burj al-Salam (Tower of Peace), and remained intact until the 1970s. The remains of his consist of a few cross-vaults lying on square pillars in a car park, while the eastern section of the structure is used for warehousing.

Although Daher ensured Acre was the focus of trade activity, he utilized Haifa as a safe winter harbor. With mixed success, Daher attempted to redirect French ships from the harbors of Tyre and Sidon to Haifa, in order to benefit from the customs fees he could exact. Many of Haifa's new settlers were Christians. Compared to Acre, Haifa remained small, its population estimated at 250 in the 1770s, but its economy increasingly thrived as merchants there more easily evaded Daher's monopolies. Daher also built a congregational mosque in Haifa, the al-Jarina Mosque. Most of the present building is a later construction.

Villages

thumb|right|Remains of the palace complex at [[Deir Hanna built by Daher, his brother Sa'd or son Ali. Daher was headquartered in Deir Hanna before moving to Acre]]

Fortifications and other structures were built in the rural villages under Daher's control. The Zayadina built a double wall around Deir Hanna, making it "the best example of a fortified village in the Galilee", according to Andrew Petersen. Daher's brother Sa'd built the inner walls and the twelve towers which hovered over them, while Daher built the outer walls. His son Ali added towers, detached from the walls, in front of the eastern and western sides. They also built a palace complex, including a mosque. The Zaydani building works in Deir Hanna were severely damaged during Jazzar's siege. Nonetheless, considerable parts of the structures remain intact and as late as 1960, the town retained the same form of the fortress, with no structures built outside of the lines of the original fortifications.

North of Deir Kifa (in Lebanon) Daher built the castle of Kulat Marun. In Khirbat Jiddin, Daher rebuilt the demolished Crusader fortress with the addition of a mosque and hammam (bathhouse). The mosque was destroyed by Israeli forces when the village was captured during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. In Shefa-Amr, Daher's son Uthman built a large fortress with four towers, of which one remains standing. His son Ahmad rebuilt the Crusader fortress in Saffuriya. In the village of I'billin, Daher's brother Yusuf built fortifications and a mosque. The I'billin fortress was later used as the headquarters of Aqil Agha, the 19th-century, semi-autonomous Arab sheikh of the Galilee.

In Tibnin, in modern Lebanon, and in Safed, Daher or his son Ali rebuilt Crusader fortifications. Daher fortified the village of Harbaj, though the village and its fort were in ruins by the late 19th century. At Tabgha on the Sea of Galilee, Daher built five fountains, one of which remained standing by the 19th century. That remaining fountain was the largest of its kind in the Galilee.

Governance

Administration

thumb|right|The fortress of [[Shefa-Amr, built by Daher's son Uthman]]

Daher maintained control over his territories by leaving established local leaders in place as his vassal , such as the Metawali sheikhs of Jabal Amil, the Husayn family of Jiddin, and the Nafi, Shahin and Murad families of Jira (the nahiye around Safed). He underwrote their tax obligations and was viewed as ultimately responsible for their nahiyes by the authorities. The Metawalis were left to govern themselves, Daher satisfied with their military support and the Metawalis reliant on him for selling their cotton. In the other nahiyes, Daher married his sons into the local ruling families and set them up in strategic fortresses to safeguard his interests, keep his vassals in check, defend from external attack, and ensure the supply of cotton to Acre. Except for Acre and Haifa, Daher divided the remainder of his territory between his family members.

Overseeing his fiscal affairs and correspondences was Daher's (manager) and vizier. This official was always a Melkite (local Greek Catholic), the first of whom was Yusuf al-Arqash. He was succeeded in 1749 by Yusuf Qassis, who served until 1761 when he was arrested for attempting to smuggle wealth he had accumulated during his service to Malta. He was succeeded by Ibrahim Sabbagh, who had been made Daher's personal physician in 1757, replacing Sulayman Suwwan, a Greek Orthodox Christian. Sabbagh became the most influential figure in Daher's administration, particularly in Daher's old age. His influence with Daher stemmed from the wealth he amassed through his integral role managing Daher's cotton monopoly. Sabbagh took on additional roles as Daher's political adviser, chief administrator and chief representative with European merchants and Ottoman provincial and imperial officials. Daher appointed an agha (military official) to supervise customs by the European merchants in Acre and Haifa.

Daher's initial military forces consisted of his Zaydani kinsmen and the inhabitants of the areas he ruled. They were about 200-strong in the early 1720s, but grew to 1,500 in the early 1730s. During this period, Daher also relied on the Banu Saqr and other Bedouin tribes. As he consolidated his hold over the Galilee, his army rose to 4,000 men, many of the later recruits being peasants who supported Daher for protecting them against Bedouin raids. This suppression of the Bedouin in turn caused the tribes to largely withdraw their military backing of Daher. The core of his private army, beginning in 1738, were the Maghrebi mercenaries led by Dinkizli. From his reconciliation with Sheikh Nasif in 1768, Daher gained the backing of Nasif's roughly 10,000 Metawali horsemen. Daher's fortified towns and villages were equipped with artillery and his army's arsenal included cannons, matchlock rifles, pistols and lances. Most of the firearms were imported from Venice or France and, by the early 1770s, the Russian navy.

The chief religious officials in Daher's administration were the mufti and the qadi (judge). The mufti was the chief scholar among the ulema (Muslim scholarly community) and interpreted Islamic law in Daher's realm. Although he was appointed by the imperial government, Daher maintained the same mufti for many years at a time in contrast with the typical Syrian province which saw its mufti replaced annually. The long-time mufti was Abd al-Halim al-Shuwayki, the son of Daher's Damascene friend Abd al-Ghaffar al-Shuwayki. The qadi was directly appointed by Daher from Palestine's local ulema, but his judicial decisions had to be approved by the qadi of Sidon. Daher also had a chief imam, who in the last years of his rule was Ali ibn Khalid from Sha'ab.

General security

thumb|right|Daher rebuilt the Crusader-era [[Yehi'am Fortress National Park|fortress at Khirbat Jiddin ]]

According to Joudah, the two principal conditions Daher established to foster his sheikhdom's prosperity and its survival were "security and justice". Before Daher's consolidation of power, the villages of northern Palestine were prone to Bedouin raids and robberies and the roads were under constant threat from highway robbers and Bedouin attacks. Despite being left destitute following the looting raids, the inhabitants of these agrarian villages remained obligated to pay the Ottoman government the . To avoid punitive measures for not paying the , the inhabitants would abandon their villages for safety in the larger towns or the desert. This situation hurt the economy of the region as the raids sharply reduced the villages' agricultural output, tax collectors could not collect their impositions, and trade could not be safely conducted due to the insecurity of the roads.

By 1746, Daher had established order in the lands he controlled. He coopted the dominant Bedouin tribe of the region, the Banu Saqr, which greatly contributed to the establishment of security in northern Palestine. Moreover, Daher charged the sheikhs of the towns and villages of northern Palestine with ensuring the safety of the roads in their respective vicinity and required them to compensate anyone who was robbed of their property. General security reached a level whereby "an old woman with gold in her hand could travel from one place to another without fear or danger", according to Daher's biographer Sabbagh.

The period of calm that persisted between 1744 and 1765 greatly boosted the security and economy of the Galilee. The security established in the region encouraged people from other parts of the empire to immigrate there. Conflict between the local clans and between Daher and his sons remained limited to periodic clashes, while there were no external attacks against Daher's domains. While Daher used force to strengthen his position, the local inhabitants generally took comfort in his rule, which Philipp described as "relatively just and reasonably fair". According to the traveler Richard Pococke, who visited the area in 1737, the local people had great admiration for Daher, especially for his war against bandits on the roads.

Legacy

After Daher's death, his successor Jazzar maintained the cotton monopoly he had established and the Galilee's economy remained dependent on the cotton trade. The region prospered for decades, but with the rise of cotton production in the southern United States during the early–mid-19th century, European demand shifted away from Palestine's cotton. Because of its dependency on the crop, the region experienced a sharp economic downturn from which it could not recover. The cotton crop was largely abandoned, as were many villages, and the peasantry shifted to subsistence agriculture.

In the late 19th century, the Palestine Exploration Fund's Claude Reignier Conder wrote that the Ottomans had successfully destroyed the power of Palestine's indigenous ruling families who "had practically been their own masters" but had been "ruined so that there is no longer any spirit left in them". Among these families were the "proud race" of Daher, which was still held in high esteem, but was powerless and poor. Daher's modern-day descendants in the Galilee use the surname 'Dhawahri' or 'al-Zawahirah' in Daher's honor. The Dhawahri constitute one of the traditional elite Muslim clans of Nazareth, alongside the Fahum, Zu'bi, and Onallah families. Other places in the Galilee where descendants of Daher's clan live are Bi'ina and Kafr Manda and, before its 1948 destruction, Damun. Many of the inhabitants of modern-day northern Israel, particularly the towns and villages where Daher or his family left an architectural legacy, hold Daher in high regard.

Although he was mostly overlooked by historians of the Middle East, some scholars view Daher's rule as a forerunner to Palestinian nationalism. Among them is Karl Sabbagh, who asserts the latter view in his book Palestine: A Personal History, which was widely reviewed in the British press in 2010. Daher was gradually integrated into Palestinian historiography. In Murad Mustafa Dabbagh's Biladuna Filastin (1965), a multi-volume work about Palestine's history, Daher is referred to as the "greatest Palestinian appearing in the eighteenth century". The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) radio station, Voice of Palestine, broadcast a series about Daher in 1966, praising him as a Palestinian national hero who fought against Ottoman imperialism. Daher is considered by many Arab nationalists as a pioneer of Arab liberation from foreign occupation. According to Joudah, Palestinian academic Nur Masalha described Daher as "the founding father of early Palestinian modernities and social renewal". He further argued that Palestine under the rule of Daher was "the closest Palestine got to a modern independent state".