Cuniculture - WikiHQ

thumb|right|Maciej, King of Kings by Antoni Kozakiewicz (1841–1929) from Book VI of [[Pan Tadeusz]]

Cuniculture is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising domestic rabbits as livestock for their meat, fur, or wool. Cuniculture is also employed by rabbit fanciers and hobbyists in the development and betterment of rabbit breeds and the exhibition of those efforts. Scientists practice cuniculture in the use and management of rabbits as model organisms in research. Cuniculture has been practiced all over the world since at least the 5th century.

History

Early husbandry

An abundance of ancient rabbits may have played a part in the naming of Spain. Phoenician sailors visiting its coast around the 12th century BC mistook the European rabbit for the familiar rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) of their homeland. They named their discovery , meaning 'land [or island] of hyraxes'. A theory exists (though it is somewhat controversial) that a corruption of this name used by the Romans became Hispania, the Latin name for the Iberian Peninsula.

Domestication of the European rabbit rose slowly from a combination of game-keeping and animal husbandry. Among the numerous foodstuffs imported by sea to Rome during her domination of the Mediterranean were shipments of rabbits from Spain. Romans also imported ferrets for rabbit hunting, and the Romans then distributed rabbits and the habit of rabbit keeping to the rest of Italy, to France, and then across the Roman Empire, including the British Isles. Rabbits were kept in both walled areas as well as more extensively in game-preserves. In the British Isles, these preserves were known as warrens or , and rabbits were known as , to differentiate them from the similar hares.

Early breeds

thumb|left|Illustration of cuts of rabbit meat by Georg Philipp Harsdörffer (1657)|245px

Rabbits were typically kept as part of the household livestock by peasants and villagers throughout Europe. Husbandry of the rabbits, including collecting weeds and grasses for fodder, typically fell to the children of the household or farmstead. These rabbits were largely 'common' or 'meat' rabbits and not of a particular breed, although regional strains and types did arise. Some of these strains remain as regional breeds, such as the Gotland of Sweden, The Brabancon is now considered extinct, although a descendant, the Dutch breed, remains a popular small rabbit for the pet trade. Rabbits, along with goats and other hardy livestock, were frequently released on islands to produce a food supply for later ships.

Rise of the fancy

The final leg of rabbit breeding—beyond meat, wool, fur, and laboratory use—was the breeding of 'fancy' animals as pets and curiosities. The term 'fancy' was originally applied to long-eared 'lop' rabbits, as they were the first type to be bred for exhibition.

thumb|left|Cuniculture in Germany in 1916|210px Such rabbits were first admitted to agricultural shows in England in the 1820s, and in 1840 a club was formed for the promotion and regulation of exhibitions for "Fancy Rabbits".

With the advent of national-level organizations, rabbit breeders had a framework for establishing breeds and varieties utilizing recognized standards, and breeding for rabbit exhibitions began to expand rapidly. Such organizations and associations were also established across Europe—most notably in Germany, France, and Scandinavia Eventually, farmers across Europe and in the United States began to approach cuniculture with the same scientific principles as had already been applied to the production of grains, poultry, and hoofed livestock. National agriculture breeding stations were established to improve local rabbit strains and to introduce more productive breeds. National breeding centers focused on developing strains for production purposes, including meat, pelts, and wool. but remained viable longer in Europe. Meanwhile, rabbit raising for local markets gained prominence in developing nations as an economical means of producing protein. Various aid agencies promote the use of rabbits as livestock. The animals are particularly useful in areas where women are limited in employment outside the household, because rabbits can be kept successfully in small areas. These same factors have contributed to the increased popularity of rabbits as "backyard livestock" among locavores and homesteaders in more developed countries in North America and Europe. The addition of rabbits to the watchlist of endangered heritage breeds that is kept by The Livestock Conservancy has also led to increased interest from livestock conservationists. In contrast, throughout Asia (and particularly in China) rabbits are increasingly being raised and sold for export around the world.

The World Rabbit Science Association (WRSA), formed in 1976, was established "to facilitate in all possible ways the exchange of knowledge and experience among persons in all parts of the world who are contributing to the advancement of the various branches of the rabbit industry". The WRSA organizes a world conference every four years.

Present day (2000–present)

thumb|left|Cuniculture at a small farm in Cuba (2015)

Approximately 1.2 billion rabbits are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. In more recent years and in some countries, cuniculture has come under pressure from animal rights activists on several fronts. The use of animals, including rabbits, in scientific experiments has been subject to increased scrutiny in developed countries. Increasing regulation has raised the cost of producing animals for this purpose, and made other experimental options more attractive. Other researchers have abandoned investigations which required animal models. Meanwhile, various rescue groups under the House Rabbit Society umbrella have taken an increasingly strident stance against any breeding of rabbits (even as food in developing countries) on the grounds that it contributes to the number of mistreated, unwanted or abandoned animals.

thumb|right|Cuniculture in the Czech countryside (2007)|190px The growth of homesteaders and smallholders has led to the rise of visibility of rabbit raisers in geographic areas where they have not been previously present. This has led to zoning conflicts over the regulation of butchering and waste management. Conflicts have also arisen with House Rabbit Society organizations as well as ethical vegetarians and vegans concerning the use of rabbits as meat and fur animals rather than as pets.

Aspects of rabbit production

Meat rabbits

Rabbits have been raised for meat production in a variety of settings around the world. Smallholder or backyard operations remain common in many countries, while large-scale commercial operations are centered in Europe and Asia. For the smaller enterprise, multiple local rabbit breeds may be easier to use.thumb|right|Butchering rabbits in [[Queensland, Australia (1915)|400px]] Many local, "rustico", landrace or other heritage type breeds may be used only in a specific geographic area. Sub-par or "cull" animals from other breeding goals (laboratory, exhibition, show, wool, or pet) may also be used for meat, particularly in smallholder operations.

Counterintuitively, the giant rabbit breeds are rarely used for meat production, due to their extended growth rates (which lead to high feed costs) and their large bone size (which reduces the percentage of their weight that is usable meat). Dwarf breeds, too, are rarely used, due to the high production costs, slow growth, and low offspring rate.

In contrast to the multitude of breeds and types used in smaller operations, breeds such as the New Zealand and the Californian, along with hybrids of these breeds, are most frequently utilized for meat in commercial rabbitries. The primary qualities of good meat-rabbit breeding stock are growth rate and size at slaughter, but also good mothering ability. Specific lines of commercial breeds have been developed that maximize these qualities – rabbits may be slaughtered as early as seven weeks and does of these strains routinely raise litters of 8 to 12 kits. Other breeds of rabbit developed for commercial meat production include the Florida White and the Altex.

thumb|left|A slaughtering facility in Germany (1985)|280px

Rabbit breeding stock raised in France is particularly popular with meat rabbit farmers internationally, some being purchased as far away as China in order to improve the local rabbit herd.

"Rabbit fryers" are rabbits that are between 70 and 90 days old, weighing in live weight. "Rabbit roasters" are rabbits from 90 days to 6 months old, weighing in live weight. "Rabbit stewers" are rabbits 6 months or older, weighing over . "Dark fryers" (i.e., any color other than white) typically garner a lower price than "white fryers" (also called "albino fryers"), because of the slightly darker tinge to the meat. (Purely pink carcasses are preferred by most consumers.) Dark fryers are also harder to de-hide (skin) than white fryers.

In the United States, white fryers garner the highest prices per pound of live weight. In Europe, however, a sizable market remains for the dark fryers that come from older and larger rabbits. In the kitchen, dark fryers are typically prepared differently from white fryers.

In 1990, the world's annual production of rabbit meat was estimated to be 1.5 million tonnes. In 2014, the number was estimated at 2 million tonnes. China is among the world's largest producers and consumers of rabbit meat, accounting for some 30% of the world's total consumption. Within China itself, rabbits are raised in many provinces, with most of the rabbit meat (about 70% of the national production, equaling some 420,000 tonnes annually) being consumed in the Sichuan Basin (Sichuan Province and Chongqing), where it is particularly popular.

Wool rabbits and pelt rabbits

Wool rabbits

Rabbits such as the Angora, American Fuzzy Lop, and Jersey Wooly produce wool. However, since the American Fuzzy Lop and Jersey Wooly are both dwarf breeds, only the much larger Angora breeds such as the English Angora, Satin Angora, Giant Angora, and French Angora are used for commercial wool production. Their long fur is sheared, combed, or plucked (gently pulling loose hairs from the body during molting) and then spun into yarn used to make a variety of products. Angora sweaters can be purchased in many clothing stores and is generally mixed with other types of wool. In 2010, 70% of Angora rabbit wool was produced in China. Rabbit wool, generically called Angora, is 5 times warmer than sheep's wool.

Pelt rabbits

thumb|right|Rabbit pelts curing|150px

A number of rabbit breeds have been developed with the fur trade in mind. Breeds such as the Rex, Satin, and Chinchilla are often raised for their fur. Each breed has fur characteristics and all have a wide range of colors and patterns. "Fur" rabbits are fed a diet especially balanced for fur production and the pelts are harvested when they have reached prime condition. Rabbit fur is widely used throughout the world. China imports much of its fur from Scandinavia (80%), and some from North America (5%), according to the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service GAIN Report CH7607.

Exhibition rabbits

Many rabbit keepers breed their rabbits for competition among other purebred rabbits of the same breed. Rabbits are judged according to the standards put forth by the governing associations of the particular country. These associations, being made up of people, may be distinctly political and reflect the preferences of particular persons on the governing boards. However, as mechanisms to preserve rare rabbit breeds, foster communication between breeders and encourage the education of the public, these organizations are invaluable. Examples include the American Rabbit Breeders Association and the British Rabbit Council.

Laboratory rabbits

thumb|left|Rabbits in a research setting|310px

Rabbits have been and continue to be used in laboratory work such as production of antibodies for vaccines and research of human male reproductive system toxicology. Experiments with rabbits date back to Louis Pasteur's work in France in the 1800s. In 1972, around 450,000 rabbits were used for experiments in the United States, decreasing to around 240,000 in 2006. The Environmental Health Perspective, published by the National Institute of Health, states, "The rabbit [is] an extremely valuable model for studying the effects of chemicals or other stimuli on the male reproductive system." According to the Humane Society of the United States, rabbits are also used extensively in the study of asthma, stroke prevention treatments, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, and cancer.

Rabbit cultivation intersects with research in two ways: first, the keeping and raising of animals for testing of scientific principles. Some experiments require the keeping of several generations of animals treated with a particular drug, in order to fully appreciate the side effects of that drug. There is also the matter of breeding and raising animals for experiments. The New Zealand White is one of the most commonly used breeds for research and testing. Specific strains of the New Zealand White have been developed, with differing resistance to disease and cancers. Additionally, some experiments call for the use of 'specific pathogen free' animals, which require specific husbandry and intensive hygiene.

Animal rights activists generally oppose animal experimentation for all purposes, and rabbits are no exception. The use of rabbits for the Draize test, which is used for, amongst other things, testing cosmetics on animals, has been cited as an example of cruelty in animal research. Albino rabbits are typically used in the Draize tests because they have less tear flow than other animals and the lack of eye pigment make the effects easier to visualize. Rabbits in captivity are uniquely subject to rabbitpox, a condition that has not been observed in the wild.

Husbandry

Modern methods for housing domestic rabbits vary from region to region around the globe and by type of rabbit, technological or financial opportunities and constraints, intended use, number of animals kept, and the particular preferences of the owner or farmer. Various goals include maximizing number of animals per land unit (especially common in areas with high land values or small living areas) minimizing labor, reducing cost, increasing survival and health of animals, and meeting specific market requirements (such as for clean wool, or rabbits raised on pasture). Not all of these goals are complementary. Where the keeping of rabbits has been regulated by governments, specific requirements have been put in place. Various industries also have commonly accepted practices which produce predictable results for that type of rabbit product.

File:Նապաստակներ.jpg|Armenia in 2009

File:Зајак како дел од дворот на манастирот „Св. Ѓорѓи“ 2.JPG|Macedonia in 2013

File:Olizy-Primat - parc Argonne Découverte (01.JPG|France in 2015

File:Gucci und Fee auf einer Terasse über dem Kurfürstendamm.jpg|Germany in 2017

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File:みこと命駅長内、お休み時間約4時間 (29961758945).jpg|Japan in 2016

File:Rabbits kaurharman.6.jpg|India in 2016

File:Rabbit cage.JPG|Poland in 2009

File:খরগোশ.jpg|Bangladesh in 2013

File:Károly nyúl.JPG|Hungary in 2015

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Extensive cuniculture practices

Extensive cuniculture refers to the practice of keeping rabbits at a lower density and a lower production level than intensive culture. Specifically as relates to rabbits, this type of production was nearly universal prior to germ theory understanding of infectious parasites (especially coccidia) and the role of nutrition in prevention of abortion and reproductive loss. The most extensive rabbit "keeping" methods would be the harvest of wild or feral rabbits for meat or fur market, such as occurred in Australia prior to the 1990s. Warren-based cuniculture is somewhat more controlled, as the animals are generally kept to a specific area and a limited amount of supplemental feeding provided. Finally, various methods of raising rabbits with pasture as the primary food source have been developed. Pasturing rabbits within a fence (but not a cage), also known as colony husbandry, has not been commonly pursued due to the high death rate from weather and predators. More commonly (but still rare in terms of absolute numbers of rabbits and practitioners) is the practice of confining the rabbits to a moveable cage with an open or slatted floor so that the rabbits can access grass but still be kept at hand and protected from weather and predators. This method of growing rabbits does not typically result in an overall reduction for the need for supplemented feed. The growing period to market weight is much longer for grass fed rather than pellet fed animals, and many producers continue to offer small amounts of complete rations over the course of the growing period. Hutches or cages for this type of husbandry are generally made of a combination of wood and metal wire, made portable enough for a person to move the rabbits daily to fresh ground, and of a size to hold a litter of 6 to 12 rabbits at the market weight of . Protection from sun and driving rain are important health concerns, as is durability against predator attacks and the ability to be cleaned to prevent loss from coccidiosis.

Intensive cuniculture practices

thumb|right|Rabbits being raised on pasture in moveable enclosures at [[Polyface Farm, Virginia, US (2010)|240px]]Intensive cuniculture is more focused, efficient, and time-sensitive, utilizing a greater density of animals and higher turnover. The labor required to produce each harvested hide, kilogram of wool, or market fryer—and the quality thereof—may be higher or lower than for extensive methods. Successful operations raising healthy rabbits that produce durable goods range from thousands of animals to less than a dozen. Simple hutches, kitchen floors, and even natural pits may provide shelter from the elements, while the rabbits are fed from the garden or given what can be gathered as they grow to produce a community's foodstuffs and textiles. Intensive cuniculture can also be practiced in an enclosed, climate controlled barn where rows of cages house robust rabbits eating pellets and treats before a daily health inspection or weekly weight check. Veterinary specialists and biosecurity may be part of large-scale operations, while individual rabbits in smaller setups may receive better—or worse—care.

Challenges to successful production

Specific challenges to the keeping of rabbits vary by specific practices. Losses from coccidiosis are much more common when rabbits are kept on the ground (such as in warrens or colonies) or on solid floors than when in wire or slat cages that keep rabbits elevated away from urine and faeces. Pastured rabbits are more subject to predator attack. Rabbits kept indoors at an appropriate temperature rarely suffer heat loss compared to rabbits housed outdoors in summer. At the same time, if rabbits are housed inside without adequate ventilation, respiratory disease can be a significant cause of illness and death. Production does on fodder are rarely able to raise more than 3 litters a year without heavy losses from deaths of weak kits, abortion, and fetal resorption, all related to poor nutrition and inadequate protein intake. In contrast, rabbits fed commercial pelleted diets can face losses related to low fiber intake.

Exhibition and fancier societies

220px|thumb|A [[Checkered Giant at an exhibition]]

In the early 1900s, as animal fancy in general began to emerge, rabbit fanciers began to sponsor rabbit exhibitions and fairs in Western Europe and the United States. What became known as the "Belgian Hare Boom" began with the importation of the first Belgian Hares from England in 1888 and soon after the founding of the first rabbit club in America, the American Belgian Hare Association. From 1898 to 1901, many thousands of Belgian Hares were imported to America. Today, the Belgian Hare is considered one of the rarest breeds, with less than 200 in the United States as reported in a recent survey.

The American Rabbit Breeders Association (ARBA) was founded in 1910 and is the national authority on rabbit raising and rabbit breeds, having a uniform "Standard of Perfection", registration and judging system.

Conformation shows

Showing rabbits is an increasingly popular activity. Showing rabbits helps to improve the vigor and physical behavior of each breed through competitive selection. County fairs are common venues through which rabbits are shown in the United States. Rabbit clubs at local state and national levels hold many shows each year. Although only purebred animals are shown, a pedigree is not required to enter a rabbit in an ARBA-sanctioned show but is required to register the rabbit with ARBA. A rabbit must be registered in order to receive a Grand Champion certificate. Children's clubs such as 4H also include rabbit shows, usually in conjunction with county fairs. The ARBA holds an annual national convention which has as many as 25,000 animals competing from all over the world. The mega show moves to a different city each year. The ARBA also sponsors youth programs for families as well as underprivileged rural and inner city children to learn responsible care and breeding of domestic rabbits.

Genetics

The study of rabbit genetics is of interest to medical researchers, fanciers, and the fur and meat industries. Each of these groups has different needs for genetic information. In the biomedical research community and the pharmaceutical industry, rabbits genetics are important for producing antibodies, testing toxicity of consumer products, and in model organism research. Among rabbit fanciers and in the fiber and fur industry, the genetics of coat color and hair properties are paramount. The meat industry relies on genetics for disease resistance, feed conversion ratio, and reproduction potential.

The rabbit genome has been sequenced and is publicly available. The mitochondrial DNA has also been sequenced. In 2011, parts of the rabbit genome were re-sequenced in greater depth in order to expose variation within the genome.

Gene linkage maps

thumb|right||215px

thumb|right|Gene: A (Agouti)|215px

The early genetic research focused on linkage distance between various gross phenotypes using linkage analysis. Between 1924 and 1941, the relationship between c, y, b, du, En, l, r1, r2, A, dw, w, f, and br was established (phenotype is listed below).

:*c: albino

:*y: yellow fat

:*du: Dutch coloring

:*En: English coloring

:*l: angora

:*r1, r2: rex genes

:*A: Agouti

:*dw: dwarf gene

:*w: wide intermediate-color band

:*f: furless

:*br: brachydactyly

The distance between these genes is as follows, numbered by chromosome. The format is gene1—distance—gene2.

:# c — 14.4 — y — 28.4 — b

:# du — 1.2 — En — 13.1 — l

:# r1 — 17.2 — r2

:# A — 14.7 — dw — 15.4 — w

:# f — 28.3 — br

Color genes

There are 11 color gene groups (or loci) in rabbits. They are A, B, C, D, E, En, Du, P, Si, V, and W. Each locus has dominant and recessive genes. In addition to the loci there are also modifiers, which modify a certain gene. These include the rufous modifiers, color intensifiers, and plus/minus (blanket/spot) modifiers. A rabbit's coat has either two pigments (pheomelanin for yellow, and eumelanin for dark brown) or no pigment (for an albino rabbit).

Within each group, the genes are listed in order of dominance, with the most dominant gene first. In parentheses after the description is at least one example of a color that displays this gene.

thumb|right|Gene: c(ch2) (medium chinchilla)|215px

thumb|right|Gene: e(j) (Japanese [[Brindle|brindling (harlequin))|215px]]