Culture of Myanmar

The culture of Myanmar (Burma) ( ) has been heavily influenced by Buddhism. Owing to its history, Burmese culture has significant influence over neighboring countries such as Laos, Siam, Assam in India, and Xishuangbanna regions in China. It has also been influenced in various ways by its neighbours.

Since the fall of the Konbaung dynasty to the British in the Third Anglo-Burmese War, British colonial rule and westernisation have altered various aspects of Myanmar culture. Today, Myanmar's culture is characterized by the rich diversity of its ethnic groups, each contributing to a unique cultural identity, combined with its potent body of national characters that came into development over the millennia of monarchical history.

Fine and applied arts

thumb|A wide range of Burmese lacquerware from [[Bagan]]

Historically, Myanmar art was based on Buddhist themes and mostly had patronage by the royalty. Through different eras, it evolved through different styles and uses. There are also several regional styles of Buddha images, each with certain distinctive characteristics. For example, the Mandalay style, which developed in the late 1800s, consists of an oval-shaped Buddha with realistic features, including naturally curved eyebrows, smaller but still prominent ears, and a draping robe. There are 10 traditional arts, called pan sè myo (), listed as follows:

Blacksmith ( ba-bè)
Woodcarving ( ba-bu)
Goldsmith ( ba-dein)
Stucco relief ( pandaw)
Masonry ( pa-yan)
Stone carving ( pantamaw)
Turnery ( panbut)
Painting ( bagyi)
Lacquerware ( panyun)
Bronze casting ( badin)

In addition to the traditional arts are silk weaving, pottery, tapestry making, gemstone engraving, and gold leaf making. Temple architecture is typically of brick and stucco, and pagodas are often covered with layers of gold leaf while monasteries tend to be built of wood (although monasteries in cities are more likely to be built of modern materials). A very common roofing style in Burmese architecture is called pyatthat (), which is a many tiered and spired roof.

thumb|Sculpture of [[Thagyamin nat]]

thumb|Sculpture of Myanmar mythical lion

thumb|A theatrical performance of the Mon dance

Literature

Burmese literature had been in existence for millennia, visibly since the Bagan period in the 11th century AD. Buddhism, notably the Jataka Tales, has greatly influenced Burmese literature. Many historical works are nonfiction. Poetry features prominently, and there are several forms of poetry unique to Burmese literature. However, British colonization introduced many genres of fiction, which have become extremely popular today.

By 1976, only 411 titles were published annually, compared to 1882, when 445 titles were published. Various factors, especially the lengthened bureaucratic process to obtain printing permits, censorship, and increasing economic hardship of consumers because of the socialist economic schemes, contributed to the decline of Burmese literary output.

Popular novels have similar themes to Western novels, often involving adventure, espionage, detective work, and romance. Many writers also translate Western novels, especially those of Arthur Hailey and Harold Robbins. The flourishing translation sector is the result of the Burmese government, which did not sign the Universal Copyright Convention Agreement, which would have forced Burmese writers to pay royalties to the original writers.

Short stories, often published in magazines, also enjoy tremendous popularity. They often deal with everyday life and have political messages (such as subtle criticisms of the capitalist system), partly because, unlike novels, short stories are not censored by the Press Scrutiny Board. Poetry is also a popular genre today, as it was during the monarchical times. However, unlike novels and other works, which use literary Burmese, poetry uses vernacular rather than literary Burmese. This reform movement is led by left-leaning writers who believe laymen's language (the vernacular and colloquial form of Burmese) should be used instead of formal Burmese in literature.

One of the greatest female writers of the Post-colonial period is Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay. Khin Myo Chit was another important writer who wrote, among her works, The 13-Carat Diamond (1955), which was translated into many languages. The journalist Ludu U Hla was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. Prime Minister U Nu himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels.

Other prolific writers of the post-colonial era include Thein Phae Myint (and his The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen, considered a Burmese classic), Mya Than Tint (known for his translations of Western classics like War and Peace), Thawda Swe and Myat Htun. Distinguished women writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include Kyi Aye, Khin Hnin Yu, and San San Nweh. Burmese Historians: Ba Shin, Than Tun, Thant Myint-U, Htin Aung, Sao Saimong, Myoma Myint Kywe, and San C. Po were famous in Burma.

Dance

thumb|In the Mintha Theater ([[Mandalay) a master teacher of the Inwa School of Performing Arts demonstrates traditional hand movements.]]

Dance in Burma can be divided into court, drama(Anyeint and Zett), folk and nat dances, each having distinct characteristics. Like many arts in Burma, Burmese dance is infused with different dance traditions. Mandalay dance school would have different nuances from other dance schools, such as those of Yangon. In addition to its own styles, (), is also popular in Myanmar. Yodaya is the name that was given by the Burmese for Thailand. The dance is the only dance with for entertaining the royal families at the royal court. It retains unique qualities that distinguish it from other regional styles, including angular, fast-paced and energetic movements and emphasis on pose, not movement.

Music

thumb|Two female musicians play the saung at a performance in Mandalay.

Various types of Burmese music use an array of traditional musical instruments, assembled in an orchestra known as hsaing waing which the Burmese saing saya Kyaw Kyaw Naing has made more widely known in the West. Burmese traditional music is atypical in Southeast Asian music, as it is characterised by sudden shifts in rhythm and melody as well as changes in texture and timbre. It employs different ways and occasions of playing music in Myanmar. Historically, the Hsaing-wine is played for the auspicious ceremonies and royal presence. Byaw is well familiar to the village environments. Different forms of music are accompanied by different kinds of instruments. An instrument unique to Burma is the saung-gauk, More informal rhetorical greetings such as "Have you eaten?" ( Htamin sa pi bi la) and "How are you?" ( Nei kaung la) are still common. "Hello" is also a popular greeting nowadays, whereas it used to be confined to answering the phone.

Clothing

The typical garment of the Burmese is the lungi or , a long garment worn by both men and women. For business and formal occasions, Bamar men wear a Teik-pon shirt () over an English collar shirt (sometimes donning a headwear called gaung baung), while Bamar women wear a blouse buttoned at the front, called () or to the side, called (), and a shawl. In urban areas, skirts and pants are becoming more common, particularly among the young.

During the British colonial era, Burmese nationalists associated traditional clothing, in particular Yaw longyi (), a type of longyi from the Yaw region, and pinni taikpon (), a fawn-coloured collarless jacket, with anti-colonialism and nationalist sentiment, because of a clampdown in the 1920s over increasing dissent. Wearing "traditional" clothing was seen as a mode of passive resistance to the cultural infiltration among the Burmese.

Similarly, women began wearing hairstyles like amauk (), consisting of crested bangs curled at the top, with the traditional hair bun (). Also, there is the concept of hpon (; from Sanskrit bhaga), which translates to "power". It is used as an explanation for the varying degrees of ethnic, socioeconomic, and gender differences between people in a society. Many workplaces in Myanmar also have shoe-free areas, or restrict footwear altogether, with shoes typically left at the corridor or at the entrance of an office.

These customs are strictly enforced in Buddhist places of worship, including Burmese pagodas and in Buddhist monasteries called kyaung. The Burmese remove their footwear at such sites as a sign of religious respect.

thumb|British soldiers remove their shoes at the entrance of Shwedagon Pagoda. To the left, a sign reads "Foot wearing is strictly prohibited" in Burmese, English, Tamil, and Urdu.

Strict enforcement of this custom, however, is partly a legacy of British rule in Burma, during which Europeans refused and were exempted from removing their footwear when entering Buddhist places of worship. In pre-colonial Burma, non-royals removed their footwear before entering palace grounds, as a token of respect for the reigning monarch. In the final years of the Konbaung dynasty, diplomatic relations between the British and Burmese soured when the British Resident, a colonial representative, refused to remove his shoes upon entering the raised platform of the Mandalay Palace, a decision that prevented him from meeting King Thibaw Min. Consequently, the British withdrew the Resident and his delegation in October 1879, with his exit portending the Third Anglo-Burmese War, after which the remaining half of the Burmese kingdom (Upper Burma) was fully annexed into British India.

In 1919, after a two-year battle, Cambridge-educated barrister Thein Maung, a YMBA member, successfully persuaded the colonial government to issue an order prohibiting footwear on the grounds of religious sites. Thein Maung's undertaking was in direct response to the actions of Archibald Cochrane, future Governor of Burma, who had kept his shoes on while touring Shwemawdaw Pagoda in Pegu (now Bago) in 1917, much to the indignation of locals. for repeatedly refusing to remove her shoes upon entering pagoda grounds throughout Bagan, as she had violated local customs, per Section 13(1) of the Immigration Act. Burmese authorities subsequently announced a crackdown tourists wearing shoes inside Bagan's pagodas.

Cuisine

Burmese cuisine has been influenced by Indian, Chinese and Thai cuisines as well as domestic ethnic cuisines. It is not widely known throughout the world and can be characterised as having a mildly spicy taste, with a limited use of spices. A typical Burmese meal consists of several Burmese curries, a soup, steamed rice, and fermented sauce of preserved fish, along with vegetables for dipping. Condiments like balachaung, Indian-style pickles and pickled vegetables are commonly served alongside the dishes. Although fish sauce and shrimp paste are commonly used ingredients, as in other Southeast Asian cuisines, Burmese cuisine also makes extensive use of chickpeas, lentils and tamarind, which is used to add a sour flavour rather than the lime juice or vinegar used in other cuisines.

Ethnic cuisines, in particular Shan cuisine, are also prominently found throughout Burma, as are Indian and Chinese dishes, particularly in urban areas. The de facto national dish is mohinga (), rice noodles in a rich fish soup. Burmese salads (), especially laphet thoke, which is a salad of pickled tea leaves, are also popular dishes. The Burmese traditionally eat with their fingers, although the usage of Western utensils and chopsticks has become more widespread, especially in towns and cities. Indian breads like paratha and naan or rice noodles are also commonly eaten with dishes, in addition to rice.

Weddings

thumb|A wedding procession, with the groom and bride dressed in traditional Burmese wedding clothes, reminiscent of royal attire

Weddings are considered one of the Twelve Auspicious Rites in Burmese culture. Traditional Burmese folklore considers love to be destiny, as the Hindu god Brahma writes one's destiny in love on a child's brow when he or she is six days old, called na hpuza (, lit. "destiny on the forehead"). A Burmese wedding can be religious or secular and extravagant or simple. Traditionally, a marriage is recognised with or without a ceremony when the man's longyi (sarong) is seen hanging from a rail of the house or if the couple eats from the same plate. Dowries are typically unheard of, and arranged marriage is not a custom of the common Burmese.

Weddings are traditionally avoided during the Buddhist lent, which lasts three months from July to October.

Generally speaking, Buddhist monks are not present to conduct the wedding and solemnise the marriage, as they are forbidden to officiate a marriage, which is considered a worldly affair (). However, they may be invited to bless the newly wed couple and recite a protective paritta. Afterward, entertainers perform, and the wedding is ended with a speech by a guest of higher social standing. Wedding receptions at a hotel, serving tea and ice cream, are common in urban areas.

Funerals

thumbnail|right|19th-century funeral cart and spire, which would form part of the procession from the home to the place of cremation

Burmese funerals typically last a week, with the body traditionally buried or cremated on the third day. Burial is common, but cremation, more common in the cities, is also practised by orthodox Buddhists and monks in Burma. A coin, called kudoga () is placed in the mouth of the deceased person, to pay a "ferry toll" for crossing death. Before the actual interment of the body, an offering of turmeric-coated rice is given to appease the bhummazo (), the guardian deity of the earth. During the actual funeral, gifts in the form of paper fans containing the deceased person's name, as well as Buddhist scriptures relating to the impermanence of life (anicca) and samsara are distributed to all attendees.

In urban areas, flower wreaths and florals are typically given at a funeral, as well as money, for less well-to-do families. However, in villages, more practical gifts such as food items are given to the grieving family. For seven days, the windows and doors of the house in which the person died may be left open, to let the deceased person's consciousness or "spirit", called (, ) leave the home, and a vigil may be kept at nighttime. On the seventh day, called (), a meal is offered to monks, who in turn recite blessings, protective parittas and transfer merit to the deceased, concluded with a Buddhist water libation ceremony. and even strands of Hinduism and the Mahayana tradition of northern India.

Islam reached Burma at approximately the same time, but never gained a foothold outside the geographically isolated seaboard running from modern-day Bangladesh southward to Irrawaddy Delta (modern Rakhine State, formerly Arakan, an independent kingdom until the eighteenth century). The colonial period saw a huge influx of Muslim Indians into Yangon and other cities, and the majority of Yangon's many mosques owe their origins to these immigrants.

thumb|230px|[[Saint Mary's Cathedral, Yangon|Saint Mary's Cathedral in Downtown Yangon is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in Burma.]]

Christianity was brought to Burma by European missionaries in the 1800s. It made little headway among Buddhists, but has been widely adopted by non-Buddhists such as the Chin, Karen, and Kachin. The Roman Catholic Church, Myanmar Baptist Convention and the Assemblies of God of Burma are the largest Christian denominations in Burma. Burma is home to the third-largest population of Baptists in the world, after India and the United States, the result of American missionary work.

The Chinese contribution to Burma's religious mix has been slight, but several traditional Chinese temples were established in Yangon and other large cities in the nineteenth century when large-scale Chinese migration was encouraged by the British. Since approximately 1990, this migration has resumed in huge numbers, but the modern Chinese immigrants seem to have little interest in religion. Some more isolated indigenous peoples in the more inaccessible parts of the country still follow traditional animism.

Burma has nominal guarantees of freedom of religious expression, although religious minorities (Christians and Muslims), particularly those in the countryside, are subject to discrimination. Sporadic riots between Burmese Buddhists and Burmese Muslims are not uncommon, and tensions between the two religious groups are high, particularly in major cities. In 2001, after the Taliban's destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan, religiously motivated riots broke out between Buddhists and Muslims across major cities in Burma, including Sittwe, Pyay, Taungoo and Bago. The current regime's nationalistic policy of Bama san-gyin, which considers Buddhism a key element of Burmese-ness, does provide a systemic bias in favour of Buddhists in terms of preferment in the armed forces and other State structures.

Pagodas and monasteries

Aspects of Burmese culture are most apparent at religious sites. The country has been called the "Land of Pagodas" as the landscape is dominated by Buddhist pagodas or stupas. The four most important Burmese Buddhist pilgrimage sites are Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, Mahamuni Buddha in Mandalay, Kyaiktiyo Pagoda in Mon State, and Bagan, an ancient capital by the Ayeyarwady River where thousands of stupas and temples have stood for nearly a millennium in various states of repair.

Pagodas are known by their Pali terms () or (), but are also commonly called () which is synonymous with "Buddha". Monasteries are known as (), meaning monk, and since they have traditionally been places of learning where village children are taught how to read and write including and more importantly Pali, the language of the Buddhist scriptures, school also came to be called () in the Burmese language.

Traditional festivals

There are twelve months in the traditional Burmese calendar and twelve corresponding festivals. Most of the festivals are related to Burmese Buddhism and in any town or village the local paya pwè (the pagoda festival) is the most important one.

Sports

Football

Football is the most popular sport in Myanmar.

Lethwei

Lethwei (; <small>IPA</small>: ), or Burmese bareknuckle boxing, is the most popular combat sport in Myanmar. It is a Burmese full-contact martial art called thaing, divided into bando (unarmed combat) and banshay (armed combat).

Regatta

Of the twelve seasonal festivals, regattas are held in the month of Tawthalin (August/September). The term typically describes racing events of rowed or sailed watercraft.

Equestrian

Equestrian events were held by the royal army in the time of the Burmese kings in the month of Pyatho (December/January). The famous film maker and author Thukha started producing films during this period. His most famous film is Bawa Thanthaya (The Life Cycle). Burma held its first Academy Awards in 1952. Starting with the Socialist era in 1962, there was strict censorship and control of film scripts.

In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government. After the 1989 move by the government to open up the economy, the movie industry was privatised. The film company Mingala became the most powerful company in the industry. Film stars who had been involved in the political activities of the 1980s and 1990s, such as Aung Lwin and Tun Wai, were banned from appearing in films.

In the 21st century, Myanmar cinema gained visibility in international film festivals. In 2014, The Maw Naing's The Monk was premiered at the 49th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. Followed by the participation in main competitions as Wera Aung's short film The Robe at 21st Busan International Film Festival, Aung Phyoe's Cobalt Blue at 72nd Locarno Film Festival. and Maung Sun's Money Has Four Legs at 74th Locarno Film Festival. In 2019, some local media reported a revival in the local movie industry, stating that in 2016 there were 12 movies cleared by local censorship and waiting to be screened, 18 in 2017, more than 40 in 2018, and more than 60 in 2019. The success of Now and Ever (2019), starring Zenn Kyi, was also cited as evidence of the revival.

Photography

Documenting and promoting aspects of modern visual culture, the Myanmar Photo Archive (MPA) is both a physical archive of photographs taken between 1890 and 1995 in Myanmar and the country's former period of British Burma. Further, MPA is an ongoing project for the public awareness of the country's social history. Through various exhibitions, an online presentation and a publication programme, MPA has become known since 2013 for spreading Myanmar's photographic heritage, both on a local and an international level. With a collection of more than 30.000 images and other related material, MPA has become the largest archive for Myanmar's photographic history. MPA also has published books on the history of photography in Myanmar and former Burma and has been engaged in public events and artistic re-evaluation of the archive's collections.

National holidays

{|class="wikitable"

! Date (2010) !! English name !! Burmese name !! Remarks

| 4 January || Independence Day || Lut lat yay nei || marks independence from British Empire in 1948

| 12 February || Union Day || Pyidaungzu nei || anniversary of the Panglong Agreement in 1947

| 26 February || Full Moon of Tabaung || Tabaung la pyei nei || Tabaung pwè Pagoda Festivals

| 2 March || Peasants Day || Taungthu lèthama nei || anniversary of Ne Win's coup

| 27 March || Tatmadaw Day || Taw hlan yei nei || formerly Resistance Day (against the Japanese occupation in 1945)

| 13–16 April || Thingyan Festival || Thingyan || celebrates and brings in the Burmese New Year

| 17 April || Burmese New Year || Hnit hsan ta yet nei || marks the New Year of the Burmese calendar

| 1 May || Labour Day || a louk thama nei || Workers' day

| 8 May || Full Moon of Kason || Kason la pyei Boda nei || anniversary of the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha celebrated by watering the Bodhi tree

| 19 July || Martyrs' Day || Azani nei || commemorates the assassination of Aung San and several other cabinet members in 1947

| 26 July || Beginning of Buddhist Lent || Waso la pyei nei ||

| 23 October || End of Buddhist Lent || Thadingyut || Festival of Lights

| Oct - Nov || Deepavali || Deiwali nei || Hindu festival of lights day

| 21 November || Tazaungdaing festival || Tazaungmon la pyei nei || Festival of Flying Lanterns/Hot-air Balloons

| 1 December (10th Day after Full Moon of Tazaungmong) || National Day || Amyotha nei || anniversary of the first university students strike in 1920

| 25 December || Christmas || Hkarissamat nei ||

| Dec - Jan || Eid ul-Adha || Id nei || a festival of sacrifice at the end of Hajj (annual pilgrimage to Mecca)

| 5 January 2011 || Kayin (Karen) New Year || Kayin hnithiku || celebrates the New Year of the Karen people

References

External links

Burmese Literature inc. audio
An Introduction to Burmese Sculpture
The Exquisite Art of Wood Carving by Pyi Phone Myint
Burmese Festivals
Mystic Ball - the Movie (Chinlon)
Social and Arts Trend Changes in Burma BBC Burmese Highlights: Year-end Specials 2006
Living and Learning English in Mandalay
Lethwei

pt:Myanmar#Cultura