Cryptorchidism, also known as undescended testis (UDT), is the failure of one or both testicles to descend into the scrotum. The word is . It is the most common birth defect of the male genital tract. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis.

However, about 80% of cryptorchid testes descend by the first year of life (the majority within three months), making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall. Cryptorchidism may develop after infancy, sometimes as late as young adulthood, but that is exceptional.

thumb|Different forms of cryptorchidism, depending on the position of the undescended testicle. Sometimes the retractile testicle is added.

Cryptorchidism is distinct from monorchism, the condition of having only one testicle. Though the condition may occur on one or both sides, it more commonly affects the right testis.

A testis absent from the normal scrotal position may be:

  1. Anywhere along the "path of descent" from high in the posterior (retroperitoneal) abdomen, just below the kidney, to the inguinal ring
  2. In the inguinal canal
  3. Ectopic, having "wandered" from the path of descent, usually outside the inguinal canal and sometimes even under the skin of the thigh, the perineum, the opposite scrotum, or the femoral canal
  4. Undeveloped (hypoplastic) or severely abnormal (dysgenetic)
  5. Missing (also see anorchia).

About two-thirds of cases without other abnormalities are unilateral; most of the other third involve both testes. In 90% of cases, an undescended testis can be felt in the inguinal canal. In a small minority of cases, missing testes may be found in the abdomen or appear to be nonexistent (truly "hidden").

Undescended testes are associated with reduced fertility, increased risk of testicular germ-cell tumors, and psychological problems when fully-grown. Undescended testes are also more susceptible to testicular torsion (and subsequent infarction) and inguinal hernias. Without intervention, an undescended testicle will usually descend during the first year of life, but to reduce these risks, undescended testes can be brought into the scrotum in infancy by a surgical procedure called an orchiopexy.

Although cryptorchidism nearly always refers to congenital absence or maldescent, a testis observed in the scrotum in early infancy can occasionally "reascend" (move back up) into the inguinal canal. A testis that can readily move or be moved between the scrotum and canal is referred to as retractile.

Cryptorchidism, hypospadias, testicular cancer, and poor semen quality make up the syndrome known as testicular dysgenesis syndrome.

Signs and symptoms

Infertility

Many men who were born with undescended testes have reduced fertility, even after orchiopexy in infancy. The reduction with unilateral cryptorchidism is subtle, with a reported infertility rate of about 10%, compared with about 6% reported by the same study for the general population of adult men.

The fertility reduction after orchiopexy for bilateral cryptorchidism is more marked, about 38%, or six times that of the general population. The basis for the universal recommendation for early surgery is research showing degeneration of spermatogenic tissue and reduced spermatogonia counts after the second year of life in undescended testes. The degree to which this is prevented or improved by early orchiopexy is still uncertain.

Cancer risk

One of the strongest arguments for early orchiopexy is reducing the risk of testicular cancer. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develop testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The peak incidence occurs in the third and fourth decades of life. The risk is higher for intra-abdominal testes and somewhat lower for inguinal testes, but even the normally descended testis of a man whose other testis was undescended has about a 20% higher cancer risk than those of other men.

The most common type of testicular cancer occurring in undescended testes is seminoma. It is usually treatable if caught early, so urologists often recommend that boys who had orchiopexy as infants be taught testicular self-examination, to recognize testicular masses and seek early medical care for them. Cancer developing in an intra-abdominal testis would be unlikely to be recognized before considerable growth and spread, and one of the advantages of orchiopexy is that a mass developing in a scrotal testis is far easier to recognize than an intra-abdominal mass.

Orchidopexy was originally thought to result in easier detection of testicular cancer, but it did not lower the risk of actually developing cancer. However, recent data have shown a paradigm shift. The New England Journal of Medicine published in 2007, that orchidopexy performed before puberty resulted in a significantly reduced risk of testicular cancer than if done after puberty.

The risk of malignancy in the undescended testis is 4 to 10 times higher than that in the general population and is about one in 80 with a unilateral undescended testis and one in 40 to one in 50 for bilateral undescended testes. The peak age for this tumor is 15–45 years old. While seminoma is the most common tumor developing in an undescended testis (65%); after orchiopexy, they represent only 30% of testicular tumors.

Causes

Environmental hypotheses

In most full-term infant boys with cryptorchidism but no other genital abnormalities, a cause cannot be found, making this a common, sporadic, unexplained (idiopathic) birth defect. A combination of genetics, maternal health, and other environmental factors may disrupt the hormones and physical changes that influence the development of the testicles.

  • Severely premature infants can be born before the descent of the testes. Low birth weight is also a known factor.
  • A contributing role of environmental chemicals called endocrine disruptors that interfere with normal fetal hormone balance has been proposed. The Mayo Clinic lists "parents' exposure to some pesticides" as a known risk factor.
  • Risk factors may include exposure to regular alcohol consumption during pregnancy, (five or more drinks per week) associated with a three-fold increase in cryptorchidism when compared to nondrinking mothers. Cigarette smoking is also a known risk factor.
  • Androgen insensitivity syndrome generally manifests itself in Cryptorchidism. In CAIS, the testis are generally located completely undescended, where the ovaries usually are. In PAIS, the testis is generally partially undescended. This also occurs with 5α-Reductase 2 deficiency (DHT insensitivity) however, the testis generally descend during puberty.

In 2008, a study was published that investigated the possible relationship between cryptorchidism and prenatal exposure to a chemical called phthalate (DEHP), which is used in the manufacture of plastics. The researchers found a significant association between higher levels of DEHP metabolites in pregnant mothers and several sex-related changes, including incomplete descent of the testes in their sons. According to the lead author of the study, a national survey found that 25% of U.S. women had phthalate levels similar to the levels that were found to be associated with sexual abnormalities.

A 2010 study <!-- published in the European medical journal Human Reproduction --> examined the prevalence of congenital cryptorchidism among offspring whose mothers had taken mild analgesics, primarily over-the-counter pain medications including ibuprofen (e.g. Advil) and paracetamol (acetaminophen). Combining the results from a survey of pregnant women prior to their due date in correlation with the health of their children and an ex vivo rat model, the study found that pregnant women who had been exposed to mild analgesics had a higher prevalence of baby boys born with congenital cryptorchidism.

Sexually antagonistic epigenetic marker hypothesis

When one identical twin is born with cryptorchidism, his identical twin also has the trait only 25% of the time, despite sharing their genes and prenatal hormonal environment. Animal studies have found that androgen antagonists during early fetal development cause elevated rates of hypospadias and cryptorchidism, however, in humans these traits rarely occur together. If these marks are sexually antagonistic, and if a subset of these epigenetic marks carry over generations, they are expected to produce mosaicism of sexual development in opposite-sex offspring, sometimes producing hypospadias or cryptorchidism when passed from a mother to son (feminizing the external genitalia). Rice's model requires further testing with currently available technology to support or falsify it.

When the undescended testis is in the inguinal canal, hormonal therapy is sometimes attempted and very occasionally successful. The most commonly used hormone therapy is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). A series of hCG injections (10 injections over five weeks is common) is given, and the status of the testis/testes is reassessed at the end. Although many trials have been published, the reported success rates range widely, from roughly 5% to 50%, probably reflecting the varying criteria for distinguishing retractile testes from low inguinal testes. Hormone treatment does have the occasional incidental benefits of allowing confirmation of Leydig cell responsiveness (proven by a rise of the testosterone by the end of the injections) or inducing additional growth of a small penis (via the testosterone rise). Some surgeons have reported facilitation of surgery, perhaps by enhancing the size, vascularity, or healing of the tissue. A newer hormonal intervention used in Europe is the use of GnRH analogs such as nafarelin or buserelin; the success rates and putative mechanism of action are similar to hCG, but some surgeons have combined the two treatments and reported higher descent rates. Limited evidence suggests that germ cell count is slightly better after hormone treatment; whether this translates into better sperm counts and fertility rates at maturity has not been established. The cost of either type of hormone treatment is less than that of surgery, and the chance of complications at appropriate doses is minimal. Nevertheless, despite the potential advantages of a trial of hormonal therapy, many surgeons do not consider the success rates high enough to be worth the trouble, since the surgery itself is usually simple and uncomplicated.

In cases where the testes are identified preoperatively in the inguinal canal, orchiopexy is often performed as an outpatient and has a very low complication rate. An incision is made over the inguinal canal. The testis with accompanying cord structure and blood supply is exposed, partially separated from the surrounding tissues ("mobilized"), and brought into the scrotum. It is sutured to the scrotal tissue or enclosed in a "subdartos pouch". The associated passage back into the inguinal canal is closed to prevent reascension. In patients with intra-abdominal maldescended testis, laparoscopy is useful to see for oneself the pelvic structures, position of the testis, and decide upon surgery (single or staged procedure).

Surgery becomes more complicated if the blood supply is not ample and elastic enough to be stretched into the scrotum. In these cases, the supply may be divided, some vessels sacrificed with the expectation of adequate collateral circulation. In the worst case, the testis must be "autotransplanted" into the scrotum, with all connecting blood vessels cut and reconnected (anastomosed).

When the testis is in the abdomen, the first stage of surgery is exploration to locate it, assess its viability, and determine the safest way to maintain or establish the blood supply. Multistage surgeries, or autotransplantation and anastomosis, are more often necessary in these situations. Just as often, intra-abdominal exploration discovers that the testis is nonexistent ("vanished"), or dysplastic and not salvageable.

The principal major complication of all types of orchiopexy is a loss of the blood supply to the testis, resulting in loss of the testis due to ischemic atrophy or fibrosis.

Other animals

Cryptorchidism is seen in all domestic animals, most commonly in stallions, boars, and canines. The prevalence of this condition can vary depending on species and breed. Evidence of this condition is more likely in companion animals and swine than ruminants. The cause of this condition can vary from a combination of genetics, environment, and epigenetics. This condition is one of the most common congenital defects in purebred dogs (11%), with 14% reported in Siberian Huskies. Although the genetics are not fully understood, it is thought to be a recessive, and probably polygenetic, trait. Some have speculated that it is a sex-limited autosomal recessive trait; however, it is unlikely to be simple recessive. Cryptorchidism can be either bilateral (causing sterility) or unilateral, and inguinal or abdominal (or both). Because it is an inherited trait, affected dogs should not be bred and should be castrated. The parents should be considered carriers of the defect, and a breeder should thoughtfully consider whether to breed the carrier parent or not. Littermates may be normal, carriers, or cryptorchid. Castration of the undescended teste(s) should be considered for cryptorchid dogs due to the high rate of testicular cancer, especially Sertoli cell tumors. Persians are predisposed. Normally, the testicles are in the scrotum by the age of six to eight weeks. Male cats with one cryptorchid testicle may still be fertile; however, male cats with two cryptorchid testicles are most likely to be sterile. Urine spraying is one indication that a cat with no observable testicles may not be neutered; other signs are the presence of enlarged jowls, thickened facial and neck skin, and spines on the penis (which usually regress within six weeks after castration). Most cryptorchid cats present with an inguinal testicle.

Testicular tumors and testicular torsion are rare in cryptorchid cats, but castration is usually performed due to unwanted behavior such as urine spraying.

Horses

In horses, cryptorchidism is sufficiently common that affected males (ridglings) are routinely gelded.

Rarely, cryptorchidism is due to the presence of a congenital testicular tumor such as a teratoma, which has a tendency to grow large.

References

  • Kidshealth.org: Cryptorchidism