Coral snake

Coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups, the Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes. There are 27 species of Old World coral snakes, in three genera (Calliophis, Hemibungarus, and Sinomicrurus), and 83 recognized species of New World coral snakes, in two genera (Micruroides and Micrurus). Phylogenetic studies suggest that the group originated in the Old World. While new world species of both genera are venomous, their bites are seldom lethal; as of 2018, only two confirmed fatalities had been documented in the United States in the preceding 100 years from the genus Micrurus. Meanwhile, snakes of the genus Micruroides have never caused a medically significant bite.thumb|left|Eastern coral snake ([[Micrurus fulvius)]]

Distribution

New World coral snakes (genera Micruroides and Micrurus) range from the Southern United States to Argentina. Old World coral snakes (genera Calliophis, Hemibungarus, and Sinomicrurus) live in Asia and Africa.

right|thumb|Coral snake showing typically reclusive behavior of hiding under rotting wood. This one was over long, but less than across.

Behavior

Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive, fossorial (burrowing) snakes which spend most of their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or during breeding season. Some species, like Micrurus surinamensis, are almost entirely aquatic and spend most of their lives in slow-moving bodies of water that have dense vegetation.

Coral snakes feed mostly on smaller snakes, lizards, frogs, nestling birds, small rodents, etc. Tropical species of coral snakes from more mesic areas have a broader diet, feeding on elongate prey like eels and caecilians.

Like all elapid snakes, coral snakes possess a pair of small hollow fangs to deliver their venom. The fangs are positioned at the front of the mouth. The fangs are fixed in position rather than retractable, and rather than being directly connected to the venom duct, they have a small groove through which the venom enters the base of the fangs. Because the fangs are relatively small and inefficient for venom delivery, rather than biting quickly and letting go like vipers, coral snakes tend to hold onto their prey and make chewing motions when biting. The neurotoxic venom takes time to reach full effect, affecting the nervous system and weakening the muscles.

Reproduction

The breeding season occurs from spring to early summer and late summer to early fall. A study investigating how climate influences the reproductive cycle discovered that coral snake species with ranges occurring closer to the equator display more continuous reproductive cycles, while species in colder regions display more seasonal cycles.

Old World

Genus Calliophis

Species in this genus are:

Calliophis beddomei (M.A. Smith, 1943) – Beddome's coral snake (India)
Calliophis bibroni (Jan, 1858) – Bibron's coral snake (India)
Calliophis bilineatus
Calliophis bivirgatus (F. Boie, 1827) – blue Malaysian coral snake (Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand)
Calliophis castoe E.N. Smith, Ogale, Deepak & Giri, 2012 – Castoe's coral snake (India)
Calliophis gracilis (Gray, 1835) – spotted coral snake (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore)
Calliophis haematoetron E.N. Smith, Manamendra-Arachchi & Somaweera, 2008 – blood-bellied coral snake (Sri Lanka)
Calliophis intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768) – banded Malaysian coral snake (Indonesia, Malaysia)
Calliophis maculiceps (Günther, 1858) – speckled coral snake (Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos)
Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802) – Indian coral snake (India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka)
Calliophis nigrescens (Günther, 1862) – black coral snake (India)
Calliophis nigrotaeniatus
Calliophis philippinus
Calliophis salitan R.M. Brown, Smart, Leviton & E.N. Smith, 2018 – Dinagat Island Banded Coralsnake (Philippines)
Calliophis suluensis

Nota bene: A binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than Calliophis.

Genus Hemibungarus

Species in this genus are:

Hemibungarus calligaster (Wiegmann, 1835) – barred coral snake (Philippines)
Hemibungarus gemianulis W. Peters, 1872 – (Philippines)
Hemibungarus mcclungi

Genus Sinomicrurus

Species in this genus are:

Sinomicrurus annularis
Sinomicrurus boettgeri
Sinomicrurus iwasakii
Sinomicrurus japonicus (Günther, 1868) – Japanese coral snake (Ryukyu Islands)
Sinomicrurus kelloggi (Pope, 1928) – Kellogg's coral snake (Vietnam, Laos, China)
Sinomicrurus macclellandi (J.T. Reinhardt, 1844) – Macclelland's coral snake (India, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, China, Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan)
Sinomicrurus peinani
Sinomicrurus sauteri (Steindachner, 1913) (Taiwan)
Sinomicrurus swinhoei

New World

Genus Micruroides

Micruroides euryxanthus (Kennicott, 1860) – Arizona coral snake (lowland regions from Arizona to Sinaloa, Mexico)
Micruroides euryxanthus australis Zweifel & Norris, 1955
Micruroides euryxanthus euryxanthus (Kennicott, 1860)
Micruroides euryxanthus neglectus Roze, 1967

Genus Micrurus

Nota bene: In the following list, a binomial authority or a trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Micrurus.

Micrurus albicinctus Amaral, 1925 – White-banded Coral Snake
Micrurus alleni K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Allen's coral snake (eastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama)
Micrurus alleni alleni K.P. Schmidt, 1936
Micrurus alleni richardi Taylor, 1951
Micrurus alleni yatesi Taylor, 1954
Micrurus altirostris (Cope, 1860) (Brazil, Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina)
Micrurus ancoralis Jan, 1872 – regal coral snake (southeastern Panama, western Colombia, and western Ecuador)
Micrurus ancoralis ancoralis Jan 1872
Micrurus ancoralis jani K.P. Schmidt, 1936
Micrurus annellatus (W. Peters, 1871) – annellated coral snake (southeastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil)
Micrurus annellatus annellatus (W. Peters, 1871)
Micrurus annellatus balzanii (Boulenger, 1898)
Micrurus annellatus bolivianus Roze, 1967
Micrurus averyi K.P. Schmidt, 1939 – black-headed coral snake
Micrurus baliocoryphus (Cope, 1860) – Mesopotamian coral snake
Micrurus bernadi (Cope, 1887) (Mexico)
Micrurus bocourti (Jan 1872) – Ecuadorian coral snake (western Ecuador to northern Colombia)
Micrurus bogerti Roze, 1967 – Bogert's coral snake (Oaxaca)
Micrurus boicora Bernarde, Turci, Abegg & Franco, 2018 – Boicora Coral Snake
Micrurus brasiliensis Roze, 1967 – Brazilian short-tailed coral snake
Micrurus browni K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943 – Brown's coral snake (Quintana Roo to Honduras)
Micrurus browni browni K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
Micrurus browni importunus Roze, 1967
Micrurus browni taylori K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
Micrurus camilae Renjifo & Lundberg, 2003 (Colombia)
Micrurus catamayensis Roze, 1989 – Catamayo coral snake (Catamayo Valley of Ecuador)
Micrurus clarki K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Clark's coral snake (southeastern Costa Rica to western Colombia)
Micrurus collaris (Schlegel, 1837) – Guyana blackback coral snake (northern South America)
Micrurus collaris collaris (Schlegel, 1837)
Micrurus collaris breviventris Roze & Bernal-Carlo, 1987
Micrurus corallinus (Merrem, 1820) – painted coral snake
Micrurus decoratus (Jan 1858) – Brazilian coral snake
Micrurus diana Roze, 1983 – Diana's coral snake
Micrurus diastema (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – variable coral snake
Micrurus diastema aglaeope (Cope, 1859)
Micrurus diastema alienus (F. Werner, 1903)
Micrurus diastema affinis (Jan 1858)
Micrurus diastema apiatus (Jan 1858)
Micrurus diastema diastema (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
Micrurus diastema macdougalli Roze, 1967
Micrurus diastema sapperi (F. Werner, 1903)
Micrurus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860) – pygmy coral snake
Micrurus dissoleucus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860)
Micrurus dissoleucus dunni Barbour, 1923
Micrurus dissoleucus melanogenys (Cope, 1860)
Micrurus dissoleucus meridensis Roze, 1989
Micrurus dissoleucus nigrirostris K.P. Schmidt, 1955
Micrurus distans (Kennicott, 1860) – West Mexican coral snake
Micrurus distans distans (Kennicott, 1860)
Micrurus distans michoacanensis (Dugės, 1891)
Micrurus distans zweifeli Roze, 1967
Micrurus diutius Burger, 1955 – Trinidad Ribbon Coral Snake
Micrurus dumerilii (Jan 1858)
Micrurus dumerilii antioquiensis K.P. Schmidt, 1936
Micrurus dumerilii carinicaudus K.P. Schmidt, 1936
Micrurus dumerilii colombianus (Griffin, 1916)
Micrurus dumerilii dumerilii (Jan 1858)
Micrurus dumerilii transandinus K.P. Schmidt, 1936
Micrurus dumerilii venezuelensis Roze, 1989
Micrurus elegans (Jan 1858) – elegant coral snake
Micrurus elegans elegans (Jan 1858)
Micrurus elegans veraepacis K.P. Schmidt, 1933
Micrurus ephippifer (Cope, 1886) – Oaxacan coral snake
Micrurus ephippifer ephippifer (Cope, 1886)
Micrurus ephippifer zapotecus Roze, 1989
Micrurus filiformis (Günther, 1859) – slender coral snake
Micrurus filiformis filiformis (Günther, 1859)
Micrurus filiformis subtilis Roze, 1967
Micrurus frontalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – southern coral snake (Brazil to northeastern Argentina)
Micrurus frontalis frontalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
Micrurus frontalis mesopotamicus Barrio & Miranda, 1967
Micrurus fulvius (Linnaeus, 1766) – eastern coral snake (U.S. coastal plains of North Carolina to Louisiana)
Micrurus hemprichii (Jan 1858) – Hemprich's coral snake/Orange-banded coral snake
Micrurus hemprichii hemprichii (Jan 1858)
Micrurus hemprichii ortoni K.P. Schmidt, 1953
Micrurus hemprichii rondonianus Roze & Silva, 1990
Micrurus hippocrepis (W. Peters, 1862) – Mayan coral snake
Micrurus ibiboboca (Merrem, 1820) – Caatinga coral snake
Micrurus isozonus (Cope, 1860) – Venezuela coral snake
Micrurus langsdorffi (Wagler, 1824) – Langsdorff's coral snake
Micrurus laticollaris (W. Peters, 1870) – Balsan coral snake
Micrurus laticollaris laticollaris (W. Peters, 1870)
Micrurus laticollaris maculirostris Roze, 1967
Micrurus latifasciatus K.P. Schmidt, 1933 – broad-ringed coral snake
Micrurus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758) – South American coral snake (most of low-lying areas of South America)
Micrurus lemniscatus carvalhoi Roze, 1967
Micrurus lemniscatus frontifasciatus (F. Werner, 1927)
Micrurus lemniscatus helleri K.P. Schmidt & F.J.W. Schmidt, 1925
Micrurus lemniscatus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Micrurus limbatus Fraser, 1964 – Tuxtlan coral snake
Micrurus limbatus limbatus Fraser, 1964
Micrurus limbatus spilosomus Pérez-Higareda & H.M. Smith, 1990
Micrurus margaritiferus Roze, 1967 – Speckled coral snake
Micrurus medemi Roze, 1967 – Villavicencio coral snake
Micrurus meridensis (Roze, 1989) – Merida's coral snake
Micrurus mertensi K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Merten's coral snake
Micrurus mipartitus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – redtail coral snake
Micrurus mipartitus anomalus (Boulenger, 1896)
Micrurus mipartitus decussatus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron, & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
Micrurus mipartitus mipartitus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
Micrurus mipartitus semipartitus (Jan 1858)
Micrurus mosquitensis Schmidt, 1933 – Mosquito coral snake
Micrurus multifasciatus (Jan 1858) – Many-banded coral snake
Micrurus multifasciatus multifasciatus (Jan 1858)
Micrurus multifasciatus hertwigi (F. Werner, 1897)
Micrurus multiscutatus Rendahl & Vestergren, 1940 – Cauca coral snake
Micrurus narduccii (Jan, 1863) – Andean blackback coral snake
Micrurus narduccii narduccii (Jan 1863)
Micrurus narduccii melanotus (W. Peters, 1881)
Micrurus nattereri (Schmidt, 1952) – Natterer's Coral Snake
Micrurus nebularis Roze, 1989 – Cloud forest coral snake
Micrurus nigrocinctus (Girard, 1854) – Central American coral snake (Yucatan and Chiapas to Colombia as well as western Caribbean islands)
Micrurus nigrocinctus babaspul Roze, 1967
Micrurus nigrocinctus coibensis K.P. Schmidt, 1936
Micrurus nigrocinctus divaricatus (Hallowell, 1855)
Micrurus nigrocinctus nigrocinctus (Girard, 1854)
Micrurus nigrocinctus ovandoensis K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
Micrurus nigrocinctus wagneri Mertens, 1941
Micrurus nigrocinctus yatesi Dunn, 1942
Micrurus nigrocinctus zunilensis K.P. Schmidt, 1932
Micrurus obscurus (Jan 1872) – Bolivian coral snake
Micrurus oligoanellatus (Ayerbe & Lopez, 2005) – Tambito's coral snake
Micrurus oliveri
Micrurus ornatissimus (Jan 1858) – Ornate Coral Snake
Micrurus pacaraimae Morato de Carvalho, 2002 – Pacaraima coral snake
Micrurus pachecogili Campbell, 2000 – Pueblan coral snake
Micrurus paraensis da Cunha & Nascimento, 1973 – Pará coral snake
Micrurus peruvianus K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Peruvian coral snake
Micrurus petersi Roze, 1967 – Peters' coral snake
Micrurus potyguara Pires, Silva, Feitosa, Prudente, Pereira-Filho & Zaher, 2014 – Potyguara coral snake
Micrurus proximans H.M. Smith & Chrapliwy, 1958 – Nayarit coral snake
Micrurus psyches (Daudin, 1803) – Carib coral snake
Micrurus psyches circinalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
Micrurus psyches donosoi Hoge, Cordeiro & Romano, 1976
Micrurus psyches psyches (Daudin, 1803)
Micrurus putumayensis Lancini, 1962 – Putumayo coral snake
Micrurus pyrrhocryptus (Cope, 1862) – Argentinian coral snake (Argentina)
Micrurus remotus Roze, 1987 – Remote coral snake
Micrurus renjifoi Lamar, 2003 – Renjifo’s coral snake
Micrurus ruatanus (Günther, 1895) – Roatán coral snake
Micrurus sangilensis Nicéforo-María, 1942 – Santander coral snake
Micrurus scutiventris (Cope, 1869)
Micrurus serranus (Harvey, Aparicio & Gonzalez, 2003)
Micrurus silviae Di-Bernardo, Borges-Martins & Silva, 2007
Micrurus spixii (Wagler, 1824) – Amazon coral snake
Micrurus spixiii martiusi K.P. Schmidt, 1953
Micrurus spixii obscurus (Jan 1872)
Micrurus spixii princeps (Boulenger, 1905)
Micrurus spixii spixii (Wagler, 1824)
Micrurus spurelli (Boulenger, 1914)
Micrurus steindachneri (F. Werner, 1901) – Steindachner's coral snake
Micrurus steindachneri orcesi Roze, 1967
Micrurus steindachneri steindachneri (F. Werner, 1901)
Micrurus stewarti Barbour & Amaral, 1928 - Panamanian coral snake
Micrurus stuarti Roze, 1967 – Stuart's coral snake
Micrurus surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817) - Aquatic coral snake
Micrurus surinamensis nattereri K.P. Schmidt, 1952
Micrurus surinamensis surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817)
Micrurus tener (Baird & Girard, 1853) – Texas coral snake (Texas and Louisiana south to Morelos and Guanajuato)
Micrurus tener fitzingeri (Jan 1858)
Micrurus tener maculatus Roze, 1967
Micrurus tener microgalbineus B.C. Brown & H.M. Smith, 1942
Micrurus tener tamaulipensis Lavin-Murcio & Dixon, 2004
Micrurus tener tener (Baird & Girard, 1853)
Micrurus tikuna Feitosa, Silva, Pires, Zaher & Prudente, 2015
Micrurus tricolor
Micrurus tschudii (Jan 1858) – desert coral snake
Micrurus tschudii olssoni K.P. Schmidt & F.J.W. Schmidt, 1925
Micrurus tschudii tschudii (Jan 1858)

Mimicry

New World coral snakes serve as models for their Batesian mimics, false coral snakes, snake species whose venom is less toxic, as well as for many nonvenomous snake species that bear superficial resemblances to them. Research shows that coral snake color patterns deter predators from attacking snake-shaped prey, and that in the absence of coral snakes, species mimicking coral snakes are indeed attacked more frequently. Species that appear visually similar to coral snakes include:

Cemophora coccinea
Chionactis palarostris
Erythrolamprus aesculapii
Erythrolamprus bizona
Erythrolamprus ocellatus, Tobago false coral snake
Lampropeltis elapsoides, scarlet kingsnake
Lampropeltis pyromelana
Lampropeltis triangulum, milk snake, including the following subspecies and others:
Lampropeltis triangulum amaura
Lampropeltis triangulum annulata
Lampropeltis triangulum campbelli
Lampropeltis triangulum gaigeae
Lampropeltis triangulum gentilis
Lampropeltis triangulum hondurensis
Lampropeltis triangulum multistrata
Lampropeltis triangulum syspila
Lampropeltis zonata
Lystrophis pulcher, tri-color hognose snake
Oxyrhopus petola
Oxyrhopus rhombifer, false coral snake
Pliocercus elapoides, variegated false coral snake
Rhinobothryum bovallii, coral mimic snake, false tree coral
Rhinocheilus lecontei tessellatus

Distribution

Behavior

Reproduction

Old World

Genus Calliophis

Genus Hemibungarus

Genus Sinomicrurus

New World

Genus Micruroides

Genus Micrurus

Mimicry

References

Further reading