A commander-in-chief (sometimes called a supreme commander or supreme commander-in-chief) is the person who exercises supreme command and control over an armed force or a military branch. As a technical term, it refers to military competencies that reside in a country's executive leadership, a head of state, head of government, or other designated government official.
The title used for this highest command authority varies by country and language. Generally speaking, English-speaking countries favor the title "Commander-in-chief", while French-speaking countries favor "Chief of armies" (); most continental European countries use the term "Supreme Commander"; while the Soviet Union, and consequently the post-soviet states, use "Supreme commander-in-chief" (). In those countries where the title "commander-in-chief" is not in use for the military's highest commander, it may nonetheless be in use for high-ranking military officers; for example, in the case of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, the supreme commander-in-chief is the president of Ukraine, while the commander-in-chief is its professional head.
Definition
The formal role and title of a ruler commanding the armed forces derives from Imperator of the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, who possessed imperium (command and other regal) powers.
In English use, the term was first used during the English Civil War. A nation's head of state (monarchical or republican) usually holds the position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. In a parliamentary system, the executive branch is ultimately dependent upon the will of the legislature; although the legislature does not issue orders directly to the armed forces and therefore does not control the military in any operational sense. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the military forces within their territory.
A commander in chief is sometimes referred to as supreme commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is also used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship, and as a subordinate (usually) to a head of state (see Generalissimo). The term is also used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch, special branch or within a theatre of operations.
Heads of state as commanders in chief
This includes heads of states who:
- Are chief executives with the political mandate to undertake discretionary decision-making, including command of the armed forces.
- Mostly ceremonial heads of state (constitutional monarchs, viceroys and presidents in parliamentary republics) with residual substantive reserve powers over the armed forces, acting under normal circumstances on the constitutional advice of chief executives with the political mandate to undertake discretionary decision-making.
Albania
According to the Constitution of Albania, the president of the Republic of Albania is the commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces.
Argentina
thumb|left|Argentine president [[Carlos Menem presiding over an Argentine Air Force ceremony for the Falklands War in May 1997.]]
Under part II, chapter III, article 99, subsections 12, 13, 14 and 15, the Constitution of Argentina states that the president of the Argentine Nation is the "Commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Nation". It also states that the president is entitled to provide military posts in the granting of the jobs or grades of senior officers of the armed forces, and by itself on the battlefield; runs with its organization and distribution according to needs of the Nation and declares war and orders reprisals with the consent and approval of the Argentine National Congress.
The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the president in the management of the armed forces (Army, Navy and Air Force).
Australia
right|thumb|[[Governor General of Australia The Lord Gowrie (right) signing the declaration of war against Japan with Prime Minister John Curtin (left) looking on. (8 December 1941) ]]
Under chapter II of section 68 titled Command of the naval and military forces, the Constitution of Australia states that:
In practice, however, the governor-general does not play an active part in the Australian Defence Force's command structure, and the democratically accountable Australian Cabinet (chaired by the prime minister) de facto controls the ADF. The minister for defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. Section 8 of the Defence Act 1903 states:
Austria
Article 80 of the Constitution of Austria stipulates that the president of Austria is the commander-in-chief of the Austrian Armed Forces. The same article designates the minister of defence as being in command of the army.
Barbados
According to the Constitution of Barbados, the president of Barbados is the commander-in-chief of Barbados Defense Force. Between 1966 and 2021, prior to the transition to a republican system, the monarch of Barbados, Queen Elizabeth II, was head of the Defense Force, with the governor-general of Barbados as her viceroy. The president adopted these powers.
Bangladesh
First President Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the supreme commander of all the armed forces of the republic. In absence of him, then vice president Syed Nazrul Islam was acting president and acting supreme commander of all the armed forces of the republic.
The commander-in-chief of Bangladesh Armed Forces is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence, headed by the minister of defence, which provides the policy framework and resources to the Armed Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of the country.
The first commander-in-chief, General M. A. G. Osmani, during Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, who was commander of Muktibahini/Bangladesh Forces, reinstated to active duty by official BD government order, which after independence was gazetted in 1972. He retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the president of Bangladesh.
Belarus
thumb|President [[Alexander Lukashenko wearing the official uniform of the commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Belarus.]]
The president of Belarus is the commander-in-chief of the Belarusian Armed Forces (). The Belarusian commander in chief has an official uniform and insignia befitting of the rank, which the president wears on official occasion and ceremonies in relation to the military. The role of commander in chief is laid out in Article 28 of the Constitution of Belarus, which states that he/she has the authority to "appoint and dismiss the high command of the Armed Forces".
Belgium
Article 167 of the Constitution of Belgium designates the king as the commander-in-chief. In practice, the chief of defence is the head and commander of the Belgian Armed Forces. He reports directly to the minister of defence and is responsible for advising the minister, for the implementation of defence policy and for the administration of the department.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
thumb|Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina [[Alija Izetbegović (right) meeting with US president Bill Clinton (left) in 1997 in Tuzla.]]
According to the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the collective presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In peace, the commander-in-chief exercises his command through the minister of defence. In war and in cases where the minister of defence is not fulfilling orders, the commander-in-chief exercises his command directly through the chief of Joint Staff.
Brazil
Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the supreme command of the president of the Republic.
Brunei
The sultan of Brunei is the commander-in-chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces.
Canada
thumb|King [[George VI inspects a Royal Canadian Navy guard of honour during the 1939 royal tour of Canada.]]
The powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the governor general of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the governor general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office and special cuff braid serving as rank insignia.
By constitutional convention, the Crown's prerogative powers over the armed forces and constitutional powers as commander-in-chief are exercised on the advice of the prime minister and the rest of Cabinet, the governing ministry that commands the confidence of the House of Commons. According to the National Defence Act, the minister of national defence is responsible and accountable to the Parliament of Canada for all matters related to national defence and the Canadian Armed Forces.
China
Croatia
According to the Croatian constitution, the president of Croatia is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. There was originally a rank insignia and name for the position, known as "Vrhovnik". This was held by former President Franjo Tudjman and was abolished after his death. In peace, the commander-in-chief exercises his command through the minister of defence. In war and in cases where the minister of defence is not fulfilling orders, the commander-in-chief exercises his command directly through the chief of General Staff.
Czechia
According to the 1992 constitution, the president of the Czech Republic is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces according to Article 63(1)(c), and appoints and promotes generals under Article 63(1)(f). The president needs the countersignature of the prime minister for decisions concerning the above-mentioned provisions as per Articles 63(3–4), or otherwise, they are not valid. The prime minister may delegate to other ministers the right to countersign these decisions of the president. The political responsibility for the Armed Forces is borne by the Government, which in Article 67 is defined as the "supreme body of executive power". According to Articles 39 & 43, the Parliament must give consent to the dispatch of Czech military forces outside the territory of the Czech Republic.
The Ministry of Defence is the central authority of the state administration for the control of the Armed Forces. The actual day-to-day management is vested in the chief of the general staff, the Czech chief of defence equivalent.
Denmark
thumb|King [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV on board his flagship during the 1644 Battle of Colberger Heide, by Wilhelm Marstrand. The king's personal commitment during the battle, are memorialized in first lines of the Danish royal anthem.]]
The position of the Danish monarch as the head of the military is deeply rooted in tradition. While the 1953 constitution does not explicitly designate the monarch as commander-in-chief; it is implicit, given the general provision in article 12 and the more specific wording of article 19 (2): "Except for purposes of defence against an armed attack upon the Realm or Danish forces, the King shall not use military force against any foreign state without the consent of the Folketing. Any measure which the King may take in pursuance of this provision shall forthwith be submitted to the Folketing".
However, when reading the Danish Constitution, it is important to bear in mind that the king in this context is understood by Danish jurists to be read as the government (consisting of the prime minister and other ministers). This is a logical consequence of articles 12, 13 and 14, all of which in essence stipulates that the powers vested in the monarch can only be exercised through ministers, who are responsible for all acts. Thus, the Government, in effect, holds the supreme command authority implied in articles 12 and 19(2).
The Danish Defence Law () designates in article 9 the minister of defence as the supreme authority in Defence (). Under the minister is the chief of defence, the senior-ranking professional military officer heading the Defence Command, who commands the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and other units not reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence.
Dominican Republic
According to the Constitution, Article 128, Section II, Title IV, the president is the head of foreign policy, the civil administration and the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, the National Police and all other state's security agencies.
Egypt
In Egypt, the president of the Republic holds the ceremonial title of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. A member of the government, usually defence minister, is commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces. The president is the only individual capable of declaring war. With the exception of Mohamed Morsi, who briefly served as president from 2012 to 2013, all Egyptian presidents have been former military officers. During the Yom Kippur War, the president played a major role at all levels of the planning of the war, and was, in a literal sense, Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, giving direct orders to the commanders from the headquarters during the war as field marshal of the army, marshal of the air force and air defence forces and admiral of the navy.
Eswatini
The king of Eswatini is the commander in chief of the Umbutfo Eswatini Defence Force.
Finland
thumb|upright|[[C. G. E. Mannerheim, the Marshal of Finland, as the commander-in-chief in 1941 during the Continuation War]]
According to the Finnish constitution, the president of Finland is the commander-in-chief of all Finnish military forces. In practice, the everyday command and control is in the hands of the chief of defence and the commander of the Finnish Border Guard. The economic administration of the Finnish Defence Force is the responsibility of Ministry of Defence. The duty of the president is to decide upon
- main principles of the military defence of the realm
- principles of the execution of the military defence
- other military command matters with wide-ranging importance to the military activity or the military establishment
- any other military command issue that he wishes to decide upon
Since the constitutional reform of 2000, the minister of defence has the right to be present when the president uses his command powers, unless the matter is of immediate concern. In questions of strategic importance, the prime minister has the same right.
The president has, in a state of emergency, the right to transfer the position of the commander-in-chief to another Finnish citizen.
France
In France, the president of the Republic is designated as "Chef des Armées" (literally "Chief of the Armies") under article 15 of the Constitution; the officeholder is as such the supreme executive authority in military affairs. Article 16 provides the president with extensive emergency powers.
However, owing to the nature of the semi-presidential system, the prime minister also has key constitutional powers under article 21: "He shall be responsible for national defence" and has "power to make regulations and shall make appointments to civil and military posts". the president of the Republic, in accordance to Article 53 of the Constitution of India.
The president exercises supreme command with accordance to the law. As commander in chief, the president has the power to declare war however they must subject to the approval of the Parliament of India. The commander in chief also appoints the chiefs of each branch of the armed forces as well as the Chairman Chiefs of Staff Committee with the advice of the Minister of Defence.
Whilst the constitution names the president as the de jure commander in chief, executive command authority is exercised de facto by the prime minister and their Union Council of Ministers.
On 15 August 1947, each service was placed under its own commander-in-chief. In 1955, the three service chiefs were re-designated as the chief of the Army staff (rank of general), the chief of the naval staff (rank of vice admiral) and the chief of the air staff (rank of air marshal) with the president as the supreme commander. The chief of the air staff was raised to the rank of air chief marshal in 1965 and the chief of the naval staff raised to the rank of admiral in 1968. Starting from 1 January 2020, all the three chiefs of staff report to the newly formed chief of defence staff.
Indonesia
According to article 10 of the Constitution of Indonesia, the president of Indonesia holds the supreme command of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Day-to-day operations of the Armed Forces is handled by the commander of the Armed Forces (), a 4-star officer whom can be a general (Army or Marine), an admiral (Navy), or an air chief marshal (Air Force). The commander of the Armed Forces is appointed by the president from active chiefs of staff (Army, Navy, or Air Force) and must get approval from the House of Representatives. The chief of staff is also appointed by the president from senior military officers. The president as commander-in-chief also has authority in senior military officer mutation and promotion in tour of duty. The minister of defense has responsibility to assist the president in defense issues and create policies about authorization use of military force, manage defense budget, etc. According to article 11 of the Constitution, for authorization use of military forces or declaration of war, the president must get approval from House of Representatives. The commander of the Armed Forces gives recommendations to the minister of defense in creating national defense policies.
Iran
Before 1979, the shah was the commander-in-chief in Iran. After the inception of the Islamic Republic, the president of Iran was initially appointed that task, with Abolhassan Bani Sadr being the first commander-in-chief. However, Abolhassan Bani Sadr was impeached on 22 June 1981. It was after this event that the role of commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran was given to the Supreme Leader of Iran.
Ireland
The supreme commander of the Defence Forces is the president of Ireland, but in practice the minister for defence acts on the president's behalf and reports to the Government of Ireland. The minister for defence is advised by the Council of Defence on the business of the Department of Defence. The Defence Forces are organised under the chief of staff, a three star officer, and are organised into three service branches, the Army, Naval Service, and Air Corps.
Italy
The Constitution of Italy, in article 87, states that the president of the Republic:
"is the commander of the armed forces and chairman of the supreme defense council constituted by law, although effective executive power and responsibility for national defence resides with the government headed by the President of the Council of Ministers; the president declares war according to the decision of the parliament".
thumb|220x124px | right | President of Italian Republic Sergio Mattarella lays a laurel wreath on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Rome, 2022
Kenya
Chapter 131 of the Constitution of Kenya identifies the president as the commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces and the chairperson of the National Security Council. There is a rank for the position. The president appoints a chief of general staff, known as the Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces, who acts as the principal military adviser to the president and the National Security Council. The Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces is drawn from one of the branches of the Armed Forces, the Kenya Army, the Kenya Navy or the Kenya Air Force.
Latvia
In accordance with Article 42 of the Constitution of Latvia, the president of Latvia is Commander-in-Chief of the Latvian National Armed Forces. The president may appoint a chief military commander in times of war.
Malaysia
In accordance with Article 41 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the King of Malaysia is Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces and holds the rank of Field Marshal and Admiral of the Fleet. As such, he is the highest-ranking officer in the military establishment, with the power to appoint the Chief of Staff (on the advice of the Armed Forces Council). He also appoints the service heads of each of the three branches of the military.
The Federal Constitution establishes that the office of Supreme Commander is attached to the person of the King of Malaysia as the Federation's head of state:
- Federal Constitution, Article 41 - The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) shall be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the Federation.
The Federal Parliament passed the Federal Armed Forces Act to consolidate in one law all regulations that govern the three services ( Army, Navy, and Air Force ). It establishes the function and duties of the Federal Head of State in the capacity as Supreme Commander.
Mexico
Section VI of Article 89 of the Constitution states that the president of the United Mexican States shall "Preserve national security, in accordance with the respective law, and dispose of the full permanent Armed Force, that is to say the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, for the interior security and exterior defense of the Federation".
Both the Organic Law of the Mexican Army and Air Force and the Organic Law of the Mexican Navy clearly state the president of the Republic is "Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces". The President is ex officio the only five-star general of Mexico.
The Constitution also grants the president freedom to appoint and remove the secretary of the Navy and the secretary of national defense.
New Zealand
Both the Monarch of New Zealand and their representative, the governor-general, constitutionally serve as the supreme authority in defence matters in New Zealand. The position of commander-in-chief is vested in the sovereign by the constitution. In practice however, the position of the commander-in-chief is largely ceremonial, with the governor-general primarily serving as a "patron of the New Zealand Defence Force". The governor-general exercises their authority as commander-in-chief on the advice of the minister of defence or other ministers of the New Zealand Government.
The Letter Patents 1983 consolidated the roles of governor-general and commander-in-chief into one office, with its compounded title being the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief. The governor-general's is statutorily defined in the Defence Act 1990. Sections five and six of the Defence Act 1990 outlines the governor-general's authority to raise and maintain armed forces. The head of army term was replaced to "Chief of Army Staff" on 20 March 1972 during military reforms The chief of staff is a four-star officer whose term is 3 years, but can be extended or renewed once. After 1973 constitution The chief of Army/Air/Naval staff is chosen by the prime minister of Pakistan and appointed by the president of Pakistan as commander in chief of Pakistan Armed Forces.
So, the president of Pakistan is the commander-in-chief.
Philippines
The president of the Philippines is both head of state and head of government, and is mandated by Article VII, Section 18 of the 1987 Constitution to be commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.
Poland
The president of Poland is the supreme commander () of the Polish Armed Forces according to the Constitution and in times of peace exercises their authority through Minister of National Defence. However, the art. 134 ust. 4 of the constitution states:
During the interbellum period, the General Inspector of the Armed Forces was appointed the commander-in-chief for the time of war (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces). However, after the war this function ceased to exist—thus it is likely that if Poland formally participates in a war, the chief of the general staff of the Polish Armed Forces will be appointed supreme commander.
Portugal
The president of the Portuguese Republic is the constitutional supreme commander of the Armed Forces (in Portuguese: Comandante Supremo das Forças Armadas). However, the operational command is delegated in the chief of the general staff of the Armed Forces.
In the Portuguese military parlance, the term "Commander-in-Chief" (in Portuguese: comandante-em-chefe or simply comandante-chefe) refers to the unified military commander of all the land, naval and air forces in a theater of operations.
Russia
thumb|The ceremony of passing the [[Cheget (i.e. the nuclear briefcase) from Dmitry Medvedev's military aide to Vladimir Putin's military aide during the 2012 presidential inauguration.]]
According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, (Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1) the president is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The president approves the military doctrine and appoints the defense minister and the chief and other members of the general staff.
The Russian Armed Forces is divided into three services: the Russian Ground Forces, the Russian Navy, and the Russian Aerospace Forces. In addition there are two independent arms of service: Strategic Missile Troops, and the Russian Airborne Forces. The Air Defence Troops, the former Soviet Air Defence Forces, have been subordinated into the Air Force since 1998.
Rwanda
According to the Constitution of Rwanda, the president of Rwanda is the commander-in-chief of Rwanda Defence Forces.
Saudi Arabia
thumb|Emblem of the [[Saudi Arabian Military Forces|Military Forces of Saudi Arabia]]
Article 60 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia states: "The King is the commander-in-chief of all the Military Forces. He appoints officers and puts an end to their duties in accordance with the law."
Article 61 further states: "The King declares a state of emergency, general mobilization and war, and the law defines the rules for this."
Lastly, Article 62 states: "If there is a danger threatening the safety of the Kingdom or its territorial integrity, or the security of its people and its interests, or which impedes the functioning of the state institutions, the King may take urgent measures in order to deal with this danger And if the King considers that these measures should continue, he may then implement the necessary regulations to this end."
Serbia
In accordance with the law, the president of Serbia is the commander-in-chief of Armed Forces and in command of the military. He appoints, promotes and recalls officers of the Armed Forces of Serbia.
Slovenia
In Slovenia, the commander-in-chief is formally the president of Slovenia. In peacetime, the role of commander in chief is usually assumed by the minister of defence.
South Africa
Chapter 11, section 202(1) of the Constitution of South Africa states that the president of South Africa is the commander-in-chief of the South African National Defence Force. The constitution places conditions on when and how that power may be employed and requires regular reports to the Parliament of South Africa.
South Korea
In accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Korea, the commander-in-chief and the supreme authority on all military matters is the president of South Korea.
Spain
thumb|King [[Felipe VI of Spain|Felipe VI in uniform of Captain General of the Navy at the Naval NCO Academy in 2014.]]
As with most remaining European monarchies, the position of the Spanish monarch as the nominal head of the armed forces is deeply rooted in tradition.
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 authorizes the king in article 62 (h):