Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

thumb|280px|[[Americas|America, Western Hemisphere]]

thumb|280px|Cultural regions of North American people at the time of contact

thumb|280px|Early Indigenous languages in the US

Historically, classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas is based upon cultural regions, geography, and linguistics. Anthropologists have named various cultural regions, with fluid boundaries, that are generally agreed upon with some variation. These cultural regions are broadly based upon the locations of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from early European and African contact beginning in the late 15th century. When Indigenous peoples have been forcibly removed by nation-states, they retain their original geographic classification. Some groups span multiple cultural regions. Peoples can also be classified by genetics, technology, and social structure.

Canada, Greenland, United States, and northern Mexico

In the United States and Canada, ethnographers commonly classify Indigenous peoples into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits, called cultural areas. Greenland is part of the Arctic region. Some scholars combine the Plateau and Great Basin regions into the Intermontane West, some separate Prairie peoples from Great Plains peoples, while some separate Great Lakes tribes from the Northeastern Woodlands.

Arctic

thumb|Inuktitut dialect map

thumb|Early Indigenous languages in Alaska

Paleo-Eskimo, precontact cultures, Russia, Alaska, Canada, Greenland, 2500 BCE–1500 CE
Arctic small tool tradition, precontact culture, 2500 BCE, Bering Strait
Pre-Dorset, eastern Arctic, 2500–500 BCE
Saqqaq culture, Greenland, 2500–800 BCE
Independence I, northeastern Canada and Greenland, 2400–1800 BCE
Independence II culture, northeastern Canada and Greenland, 800–1 BCE)
Groswater culture, Labrador and Nunavik, Canada
Dorset culture, 500 BCE–1500 CE, Alaska, Canada
Aleut (Unangan), Aleutian Islands of Alaska, and Kamchatka Krai, Russia
Inuit, Russia, Alaska, Canada, Greenland
Thule, proto-Inuit, Alaska, Canada, Greenland, 900–1500 CE
Birnirk culture, precontact Inuit culture, Alaska, 500 CE–900 CE
Greenlandic Inuit, Greenland
Kalaallit, west Greenland
Avanersuarmiut (Inughuit), north Greenland
Tunumiit, east Greenland
Inuvialuit, western Canadian Arctic
Iñupiat, north and northwest Alaska
Yupik peoples (Yup'ik), Alaska and Russia
Alutiiq (Sugpiaq, Pacific Yupik), Alaska Peninsula, coastal and island areas of south central Alaska
Central Alaskan Yup'ik people, west central Alaska
Cup'ik, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Alaska
Nunivak Cup'ig people (Cup'ig), Nunivak Island, Alaska
Siberian Yupik, Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island, Alaska
Chaplino
Naukan
Sirenik, Siberia

Subarctic

Ahtna (Ahtena, Nabesna), Alaska
Anishinaabe – see also Northeastern Woodlands
Oji-Cree (Anishinini, Severn Ojibwa) Ontario, Manitoba
Ojibwa (Chippewa, Ojibwe) Ontario, Manitoba, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota
Atikamekw, Quebec
Cree, Central and Eastern Canada, North Dakota
Dakelh (Carrier), British Columbia
Babine, British Columbia
Wet'suwet'en, British Columbia
Deg Hit’an (Deg Xinag, Degexit’an, Kaiyuhkhotana), Alaska
Dena’ina (Tanaina), Alaska
Dene people, Alaska, Yukon, Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba
Chipewyan, Alaskan interior, Western Canada
Tłı̨chǫ (Tlicho), Northwest Territories
Yellowknives (T'atsaot'ine), Northwest Territories
Slavey (Awokanak, Slave, Deh Gah Got'ine, Deh Cho), Alberta, British Columbia
Sahtú (North Slavey, Bearlake, Hare, Mountain), Northwest Territories
Gwich'in (Kutchin, Loucheaux), Alaska, Yukon
Dane-zaa (Beaver, Dunneza), Alberta, British Columbia
Hän, Alaska, Yukon
Holikachuk, Alaska
Innu (Montagnais), Labrador, Quebec
Kaska Dena (Nahane), Yukon
Kolchan (Upper Kuskokwim)
Koyukon, Alaska
Naskapi, Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador
Sekani (Tse'khene), British Columbia
Tagish, Yukon
Tahltan, British Columbia
Tanana Athabaskans (Tanacross), Alaska

:* Lower Tanana, Alaska

:* Middle Tanana, Alaska

:* Upper Tanana, Alaska

Inland Tlingit, Alaska, British Columbia
Tsetsaut (extinct), formerly Alaska, British Columbia
Tsilhqot'in (Chilcotin), British Columbia
Northern Tutchone, Yukon
Southern Tutchone, Yukon

Pacific Northwest coast

Of the Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast, it is widely agreed upon by scholars that that the area north of the Haisla represents a cultural subarea, called the "Northern" or "Northern Maritime" area. However, south of this, there is a deal of disagreement on the existence of any subareas, especially south of Vancouver Island. For the purposes of organization, south of the Northern subarea, tribes are grouped by language family.

Northern subarea

Eyak ()
Tlingit ()
Haida
Nisga’a ()
Gitxsan
Tsimshian ()
Haisla people

Wakashan

Xai'xais (a.k.a. Haihais)
Heiltsuk (a.k.a. Bella Bella)
Wuikinuxv (a.k.a. Oowekeeno)
Kwakwakaʼwakw (; a.k.a. Kwakiutl)
Nuu-chah-nulth (a.k.a. Nootka)
Ditidaht
Makah ()

Nuxalk (Salishan)

Nuxalk (a.k.a. Bella Coola)

Coast Salish peoples

<br>

Northern Coast Salish

Island Comox
Mainland Comox
Homalco
Klahoose
Tla'amin (a.k.a. Sliammon)
Pentlatch
Sechelt ()

Central Coast Salish

Squamish
Nanoose
Snuneymuxw (a.k.a. Nanaimo)
Stzʼuminus (a.k.a. Chemainus)
Penelekut
Cowichan
Quamichan
Lyackson
Somena
Musqueam
Tsawwassen
Tsleil-Waututh
Kwantlen
Kwikwetlem (a.k.a. Coquitlam)
Katzie
Aitchelitz
Chawathil
Cheam
Leq'a:mel
Matsqui
Popkum
Seabird Island
Skawahlook (a.k.a. Tait)
Shxw'ow'hamel
Skway
Skowkale
Skwah
Soowahlie
Stó꞉lō
Sts'ailes
Sumas
Tsleil-Waututh
Tzeachten
Yakweakwioose
Nooksack
Semiahmoo
Lummi
Samish
Saanich
Tsartlip
Pauquachin
Tsawout
Tseycum
Malahat
Lekwungen (a.k.a. Songhees)
T'Sou-ke (a.k.a. Sooke)
Klallam

Southern Coast Salish

Sauk-Suiattle
Upper Skagit
Swinomish
Snohomish
Snoqualmie
Suquamish
Duwamish
Puyallup
Nisqually
Steilacoom
Squaxin
Twana
Skokomish

Southwestern Coast Salish

Quinault
Lower Chehalis
Upper Chehalis
Cowlitz

Chimakuan

Chemakum
Quileute
Hoh

Chinookans

Lower Chinook
Clatsop
Shoalwater Chinook
Kathlamet
Multnomah people
Clackamas people

Oregon Salish

Tillamook
Siletz

Alseans

Alsea
Yaquina

Siuslawans

Siuslaw
Lower Umpqua

Coosans

Hanis (a.k.a. Coos)
Miluk
Lower Coquille

Kalapuyans

Atfalati (a.k.a. Tualatin)
Yamhill
Ahantchuyuk
Luckiamute
Santiam
Mary's River
Chemapho
Tsankupi
Tsanchifin
Mohawk
Chelamela
Winnefelly
Yoncalla

Athabaskans

Kwalhioqua
Clatskanie
Upper Umpqua
Tututni
Upper Coquille
Chasta Costa
Chetco

Northwest Plateau

Chinook peoples

:* Clackamas, OR

:* Clatsop, OR

:* Kathlamet (Cathlamet), Washington

:* Multnomah

:* Wasco-Wishram, OR and WA

:* Watlata, WA

Interior Salish peoples

:* Chelan, WA

:* Coeur d'Alene Tribe, ID, MT, WA

:* Entiat, WA

:* Flathead (Selisch or Salish), ID, MT

:** Bitterroot Salish

:* Kalispel (Pend d'Oreilles), MT, WA

:** Lower Kalispel, WA

:** Upper Kalispel, MT

:* Methow, WA

:* Nespelem, WA

:* Nlaka'pamux (Thompson people), BC

:* Nicola people (Thompson-Okanagan confederacy)

:* Sanpoil, WA

:* Secwepemc, BC (Shuswap people)

:* Sinixt (Lakes), BC, ID, and WA

:* Sinkayuse (Sinkiuse-Columbia), WA (extinct)

:* Spokane people, WA

:* Syilx (Okanagan), BC, WA

:* St'at'imc, BC (Upper Lillooet)

:** In-SHUCK-ch, BC (Lower Lillooet)

:** Lil'wat, BC (Lower Lillooet)

:* Wenatchi (Wenatchee), WA

Sahaptin people

:* Cowlitz, (Upper Cowlitz, Taidnapam), Washington

:* Klickitat, Washington

:* Nez Perce, Idaho

:* Tenino (Tygh, Warm Springs), Oregon

:* Umatilla, Idaho, Oregon

:* Walla Walla, WA

:* Wanapum, WA

:* Wauyukma, WA

:* Wyam (Lower Deschutes), OR

:* Yakama, WA

Other or both

:* Cayuse, Oregon, Washington

:* Celilo (Wayampam), Oregon

:* Cowlitz, Washington

:* Kalapuya, northwest Oregon

:** Atfalati (Tualatin), northwest Oregon

:** Mohawk River, northwest Oregon

:** Santiam, northwest Oregon

:** Yaquina, northwest Oregon

:* Klamath, Oregon

:* Kutenai (Kootenai, Ktunaxa), British Columbia, Idaho, and Montana

:* Lower Snake people: Chamnapam, Wauyukma, Naxiyampam, Washington

:* Modoc, formerly California, now Oklahoma and Oregon

:* Molala (Molale), Oregon

:* Nicola Athapaskans (extinct), British Columbia

:* Palus (Palouse), Idaho, Oregon, and Washington

:* Upper Nisqually (Mishalpan), Washington

Great Plains

Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes.

Anishinaabeg (Anishinape, Anicinape, Neshnabé, Nishnaabe) (see also Subarctic, Northeastern Woodlands)
Saulteaux (Nakawē), Manitoba, Minnesota and Ontario; later Alberta, British Columbia, Montana, Saskatchewan
Odawa people (Ottawa), Ontario,
Kitkehakhi, Oklahoma Quebec, Ontario
Nipissing,
Attawandaron (Neutral Confederacy), formerly Ontario
Illinois Confederacy (Illiniwek), formerly Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri currently Wisconsin
Canarsie (Canarsee), formerly Long Island New York
Esopus, formerly New York,
Minisink, formerly New York
Waoranecks
Wappinger (Wecquaesgeek, Nochpeem), formerly New York
Warranawankongs
Mascouten, formerly Michigan
Ponkapoag, formerly Massachusetts
Meherrin, Virginia, North Carolina
Menominee, Wisconsin
Pequot, Connecticut
Tunxis (Massaco), Connecticut
Unquachog (Poospatuck), Long Island, New York
Kennebec (Caniba), Maine
Western Abenaki: Quebec, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont
Ais, eastern coastal Florida
Alafay (Alafia, Pojoy, Pohoy, Costas Alafeyes, Alafaya Costas), Florida
Amacano, Florida west coast
Apalachee, northwestern Florida currently Oklahoma
Adai (Adaizan, Adaizi, Adaise, Adahi, Adaes, Adees, Atayos), Louisiana and Texas North Carolina, currently South Carolina
Chickanee (Chiquini), North Carolina
Chickasaw, Alabama and Mississippi,
Chitimacha, currently Louisiana
Coree, North Carolina
Guacata (Santalûces), eastern coastal Florida currently Oklahoma
Alabama, formerly Alabama, currently Oklahoma and Texas
Pakana (Pacâni, Pagna, Pasquenan, Pak-ká-na, Pacanas), central Alabama,
Apalachicola (town), Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina and North Carolina
Pensacola, Florida panhandle and southern Alabama
Suteree (Sitteree, Sutarees, Sataree), North Carolina
Taensa, Mississippi
Tequesta, southeastern coastal Florida
Agua Fresca (or Agua Dulce or Freshwater), interior northeast Florida
Tucururu (or Tucuru), Florida
Yufera, coastal southeast Georgia
Vicela, Florida
Yuchi (Euchee), central Tennessee,
Coso People, of Coso Rock Art District in the Coso Range, Mojave Desert California
Fremont culture (400 CE–1300 CE), formerly Utah
Kawaiisu, southern inland California

::* Tukkutikka, Tukudeka, Mountain Sheep Eaters, joined the Northern Shoshone

:* Western Shoshone people:

::*Kusiutta, Goshute (Gosiute), Great Salt Desert and Great Salt Lake, Utah

Southern Paiute, Arizona, Nevada, Utah
Chemehuevi, southeastern California
Kaibab, northwestern Arizona
Kaiparowtis, southwestern Utah
Moanunts, Salina, Utah
Sanpits, central Utah
Palagewan
Pahkanapil

California

Nota bene: The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of California's boundaries, and many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified as Great Basin tribes and some tribes on the Oregon border are classified as Plateau tribes.

Achomawi, Achumawi, Pit River tribe, northeastern California
Atsugewi, northeastern California
Cupeño, southern California
Sinkyone, northwestern California
Tipai, southwestern California and northwestern Mexico
Migueleño
Serrano, southern California
Yurok, northwestern California
Cocopa, Arizona, northern Mexico
Garza, Texas, northern Mexico
Guachimontone
Guamare
Guaycura, Baja California
Guarijío, Huarijío, Chihuahua, Sonora
Opata
Otomi, central Mexico
Patiri, southeastern Texas
Pericúe, Baja California
Pima Bajo

Caribbean

Anthropologist Julian Steward defined the Antilles cultural area, which includes all of the Antilles and Bahamas, except for Trinidad and Tobago.

Guanahatabey (Guanajatabey), Cuba, 1000 BCE
Ciguayo, Hispaniola
Ortoiroid, c. 5500–200 BCE
Coroso culture, Puerto Rico, 1000 BCE–200 CE
Cayada, Ecuador
Changuena, Panama
Embera-Wounaan (Chocó, Wounaan), Colombia, Panama
Choluteca, Honduras
Coiba, Costa Rica
Coito, Costa Rica
Corobici, Costa Rica
Desaguadero, Costa Rica
Dorasque, Panama
Guatuso, Costa Rica
Guaymí, Panama
Movere, Panama
Murire, Panama
Guetar, Costa Rica
Guna, Panama and Colombia
Lenca, Honduras and El Salvador
Mangue, Nicaragua
Maribichocoa, Honduras and Nicaragua
Miskito, Hondrus, Nicaragua
Miskito Sambu
Tawira Miskito
Nagrandah, Nicaragua
Ngöbe Buglé, Bocas del Toro, Panama
Nicarao, Nicaragua
Nicoya, Costa Rica
Orotiña, Costa Rica
Paparo, Panama
Pech, northeastern Honduras
Piria, Nicaragua
Poton, Honduras and El Salvador
Quepo, Costa Rica
Rama, Nicaragua
Sigua, Panama
Subtiaba, Nicaragua
Suerre, Costa Rica
Sumo (Mayagna), Honduras and Nicaragua
Terraba (Naso, Teribe, Tjër Di), Panama
Tojar, Panama
Tolupan (Jicaque), Honduras
Ulva, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua
Voto, Costa Rica
Yasika, Nicaragua

Colombia and Venezuela

The Colombia and Venezuela culture area includes most of Colombia and Venezuela. Southern Colombia is in the Andean culture area, as are some peoples of central and northeastern Colombia, who are surrounded by peoples of the Colombia and Venezuela culture. Eastern Venezuela is in the Guianas culture area, and southeastern Colombia and southwestern Venezuela are in the Amazonia culture area.

Assuriní do Toncantins (Tocantins)
Aweti (Aueto), Mato Grosso, Brazil
Bakairí (Bakairi)
Chácobo (Chacobo), northwest Beni Department, Bolivia
Hi-Merimã, Himarimã, Amazonas, Brazil
Jamamadi, Acre and Amazonas, Brazil
Kaxinawá (Cashinahua, Huni Kuin), Peru and Acre, Brazil
Kulina (Culina), Peru
Kwaza (Coaiá, Koaiá), Rondônia, Brazil
Latundê, Rondônia, Brazil
Machinere, Bolivia

Gran Chaco

thumb|Approximate region of the [[Gran Chaco]]

Abipón, Argentina, historic group
Angaite (Angate), northwestern Paraguay
Ayoreo (Ayoré, Moro, Morotoco, Pyeta, Yovia,
Tehuelche (later Araucanized), Patagonia
Künün-a-Güna (Gennakenk, Gennaken)
Küwach-a-Güna
Mecharnúekenk
Aónikenk (Zuidelijke Tehuelche)
Teushen (Tehues), extinct, formerly Tierra del Fuego
Selkʼnam (Ona), Tierra del Fuego
Yaro (Jaro)

Fjords and channels of Patagonia

Alacaluf (Kaweshkar, Halakwulup), Chile
Chono (Guaiteco), formerly Chiloé Archipelago, Chile
Yaghan (Yamana), Tierra del Fuego, Cape Horn and Falkland Islands
Caucahue (poorly known, possibly a partiality of Kaweshkar or Chono)

Languages

Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian languages) are spoken by Indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These Indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made. According to UNESCO, most of the Indigenous American languages in North America are critically endangered and many of them are already extinct.

Writing

Before European contact:

North America
Anishinaabewibii'iganan (Ojibwe)
Massachusett arborglyphs and petroglyphs (not a full language)
Mi'kmaw hieroglyphs
Mesoamerican writing systems
Aztec script
Isthmian script
Maya script
Mixtec writing
Olmec hieroglyphs
Zapotec script
South America
Quipu (Inca, possibly only numeric)

After European contact, some distinct writing systems have been used for Indigenous languages:

Canadian syllabics
Cree syllabics
Ojibwe writing systems
Cherokee syllabary
Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics
Massachusett writing systems
Osage script
Yugtun (Yup'ik)

Genetic classification

The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Americans is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA). Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can more easily be studied. The pattern indicates Indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas. The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous American populations. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. The Na-Dené, Inuit and Alaska Native populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other Indigenous Americans with various mtDNA mutations. This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.

Empires

Arising before European contact:

Aztec Empire (1428-1521)
Chalco (altépetl) (c. 1200-1465)
Inca Empire (1438–1572)
Purépecha Empire (c.1300-1530)
Toltec Empire (674?-1122?)
Tiwanaku Empire (c. 600-1000)
Wari Empire (c. 600-1100)

Comancheria (1770-1850) has also been described by some scholars as a Native American empire which arose after European contact.

Civilizations

These complex societies developed cities before European contact.

Aztec Empire (1428-1521)
Andean civilizations
Caral–Supe civilization (c. 3,500 BCE – c. 1,800 BCE)
Chimor (c. 900-1470)
Inca Empire (1438–1533)
Neo-Inca State (1537-1572)
Muisca Confederation (c. 800-1540)
Tiwanaku Empire (c. 600-1000)
Wari Empire (c. 600-1100)
Chalco (altépetl) (c. 1200-1465)
Maya civilization (c. 2000 BCE - 1697 CE)
Mississippian culture (c. 1000-1540)
Olmecs (c. 1200-400 BCE)
Kingdom of Parita (c. 500-1522)
Purépecha Empire (c.1300-1530)
Teotihuacan (c. 600 BCE - 750 CE)
Toltec Empire (674?-1122?)
Zapotec civilization (c. 700 BCE - 1521 CE)

The Andes, Mesoamerica, and eastern North America are considered centers that independently developed agriculture, a process known globally as the Neolithic Revolution.

The technological and social development of pre-Columbian cultures are conventionally classified into five archaeological stages:

Lithic stage or Paleo-Indian - hunter-gatherers using stone tools and weapons
Archaic stage - first settlements, first crops, subsistence
Formative stage - pottery, weaving, sedentary agriculture, ceremonial centers
Classic stage - metallurgy, craft specialization, urbanism, theocracy
Post-Classic stage - advanced metallurgy, complex urbanism, militarism, secularization

In North America, the later stages are grouped instead into the Woodland period and Mississippian culture.

Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America included for some cultures equivalents to Eurasian Copper Age and Bronze Age technology:

In North America, cold copper working is found in the Old Copper complex, Hopewellian exchange, and Mississippian culture. Evidence for copper smelting in North America is disputed.
Andean civilizations had bronze smelting, discovered by the Moche culture and used by the Calchaquí and Inca
Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica appeared after 600 CE, including alloys of copper; later, bronze techniques were probably imported from South America

The Iron Age in Eurasia is defined by the production of iron tools via smelting; iron smelting was never developed natively in the Americas. Unsmelted iron was used Andeana and Mesoamerican cultures for mirrors, decorative and ceremonial items, starting fires, and small hammers. Iron magnets were apparently used by the Olmec and Chavin to align monuments. Smelted iron from shipwrecked East Asian vessels was used in the Pacific Northwest before European contact.

Notes

References

D'Azevedo, Warren L., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986. .
Hann, John H. "The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them", in McEwan, Bonnie G. ed. The Spanish Missions of "La Florida". Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 1993. .
Hann, John H. A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 1996. .
Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513–1763. University Press of Florida. .
Heizer, Robert F., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. .
Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. .
Steward, Julian H., editor. Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 4: The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution, 1948.
Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Bruce G. Trigger, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast. Volume 15. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. .
Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. .