Classification of the Indigenous languages of the Americas

thumb|300px|Pre-contact distribution of North American language families north of Mexico

300px|thumb|The indigenous languages of Mexico that have more than 100,000 speakers

thumb|right|300px|The [[Chibchan languages]]

This is a list of different language classification proposals developed for the Indigenous languages of the Americas or Amerindian languages. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not correspond to these divisions.

North America

Glottolog 4.1 (2019)

Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 42 independent families and 31 isolates in North America (73 total). The vast majority are (or were) spoken in the United States, with 26 families and 26 isolates (52 total).

;North American languages families proposed in Glottolog 4.1

;Families (42)

Otomanguean (180)
Arawakan (78)
Uto-Aztecan (69)
Algic (46)
Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (45)
Mayan (33)
Chibchan (27)
Salishan (25)
Mixe-Zoque (19)
Siouan (18)
Eskimo–Aleut (12)
Totonacan (12)
Cochimi-Yuman (11)
Iroquoian (11)
Miwok-Costanoan (11)
Kiowa-Tanoan (8)
Muskogean (7)
Pomoan (7)
Chumashan (6)
Wakashan (6)
Caddoan (5)
Misumalpan (5)
Sahaptian (5)
Xincan (5)
Chinookan (4)
Huavean (4)
Maiduan (4)
Yokutsan (4)
Kalapuyan (3)
Shastan (3)
Tequistlatecan (3)
Tsimshian (3)
Chimakuan (2)
Coosan (2)
Haida (2)
Jicaquean (2)
Keresan (2)
Lencan (2)
Palaihnihan (2)
Tarascan (2)
Wintuan (2)
Yuki-Wappo (2)

;Isolates (31)

Adai
Alsea-Yaquina
Atakapa
Beothuk
Cayuse
Chimariko
Chitimacha
Coahuilteco
Comecrudan
Cotoname
Cuitlatec
Esselen
Guaicurian
Karankawa
Karok
Klamath-Modoc
Kutenai
Maratino
Molale
Natchez
Salinan
Seri
Siuslaw
Takelma
Timucua
Tonkawa
Tunica
Washo
Yana
Yuchi
Zuni

Gallatin (1836)

An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1826, 1836, and 1848. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and John Wesley Powell. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.)

: (Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in italics.)

Families

Algonkin-Lenape  (=Algonquian)
Athapascas  (=Athabaskan)
Catawban  (=Catawba + Woccons)
Eskimaux  (=Eskimoan)
Iroquois  (=Northern Iroquoian)
Cherokees  (=Southern Iroquoian)
Muskogee  (=Eastern Muskogean)
Chahtas  (=Western Muskogean)
Sioux  (=Siouan)

Languages

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Adaize  (=Adai)
Attacapas  (=Atakapa)
Salmon River  (=Bella Coola)
Black Feet  (=Blackfoot)
Pawnees  (=Pawnee)
Caddoes  (=Caddo)
Chinooks  (=Chinookan)
Chetimachas  (=Chitimacha)
Fall Indians  (=Gros Ventre)
Queen Charlotte's Island  (=Haida)

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11. Straits of Fuca  (=Makah)

12. Natches  (=Natchez)

13. Wakash  (=Nootka)

14. Salish  (=Salishan)

15. Shoshonees  (=Shoshone)

16. Atnahs  (=Shuswap)

17. Kinai  (=Tanaina)

18. Koulischen  (=Tlingit)

19. Utchees  (=Yuchi)

Gallatin (1848)

Families

Algonquian languages
Athabaskan languages
Catawban languages
Eskimoan languages
Iroquoian languages (Northern)
Iroquoian languages (Southern)
Muskogean languages
Siouan languages

Languages

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1. Adai

2. Alsean

3. Apache

4. Arapaho

5. Atakapa

6. Caddoan, Northern

7. Caddoan, Southern

8. Cayuse-Molala

9. Chinookan

10. Chitimacha

11. Comanche

12. Haida

13. Kalapuyan

14. Kiowa

15. Klamath

16. Koasati-Alabama

17. Kootenai

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18. Kutchin

19. Maricopa (Yuman)

20. Natchez

21. Palaihnihan

22. Plains Apache

23. Sahaptian

24. Salishan

25. Shasta

26. Shoshone

27. Tanaina

28. Tlingit

29. Tsimshian

30. Ute

31. Wakashan, Southern

32. Wichita

33. Yuchi

Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

John Wesley Powell, an explorer who served as director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, published a classification of 58 "stocks" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent.

John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers.

: (More current names are indicated parenthetically.)

{| style="font-size: 95%;"

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1. Adaizan

2. Algonquian

3. Athapascan

4. Attacapan  (=Atakapa)

5. Beothukan  (=Beothuk)

6. Caddoan

7. Chimakuan

8. Chimarikan  (=Chimariko)

9. Chimmesyan  (=Tsimshian)

10. Chinookan

11. Chitimachan  (=Chitimacha)

12. Chumashan

13. Coahuiltecan

14. Copehan  (=Wintuan)

15. Costanoan

16. Eskimauan  (=Eskimoan)

17. Esselenian  (=Esselen)

18. Iroquoian

19. Kalapooian  (=Kalapuyan)

20. Karankawan  (=Karankawa)

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21. Keresan

22. Kiowan  (=Kiowa)

23. Kitunahan  (=Kutenai)

24. Koluschan  (=Tlingit)

25. Kulanapan  (=Pomoan)

26. Kusan  (=Coosan)

27. Lutuamian  (=Klamath-Modoc)

28. Mariposan  (=Yokutsan)

29. Moquelumnan  (=Miwokan)

30. Muskhogean  (=Muskogean)

31. Natchesan  (=Natchez)

32. Palaihnihan

33. Piman  (=Uto-Aztecan)

34. Pujunan  (=Maiduan)

35. Quoratean  (=Karok)

36. Salinan

37. Salishan

38. Sastean  (=Shastan)

39. Shahaptian  (=Sahaptian)

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40. Shoshonean  (=Uto-Aztecan)

41. Siouan  (=Siouan–Catawba)

42. Skittagetan  (=Haida)

43. Takilman  (=Takelma)

44. Tañoan  (=Tanoan)

45. Timuquanan  (=Timucua)

46. Tonikan  (=Tunica)

47. Tonkawan  (=Tonkawa)

48. Uchean  (=Yuchi)

49. Waiilatpuan  (=Cayuse & Molala)

50. Wakashan

51. Washoan  (=Washo)

52. Weitspekan  (=Yurok)

53. Wishoskan  (=Wiyot)

54. Yakonan  (=Siuslaw & Alsean)

55. Yanan

56. Yukian

57. Yuman

58. Zuñian  (=Zuni)

Rivet (1924)

Paul Rivet (1924) lists a total of 46 independent language families in North and Central America. Olive and Janambre are extinct languages of Tamaulipas, Mexico. classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.

{| style="font-size: 95%;" cellpadding="7"

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American Arctic-Paleosiberian phylum
Eskimo–Aleut
Chukchi–Kamchatkan
Na-Dene phylum
Athapascan
Tlingit
Haida
Macro-Algonquian phylum
Algonquian
Yurok
Wiyot
Muskogean
Natchez
Atakapa
Chitimacha
Tunica
Tonkawa
Macro-Siouan phylum
Siouan
Catawba
Iroquoian
Caddoan
Yuchi
Hokan phylum
Yuman
Seri
Pomoan
Palaihnihan
Shastan
Yanan
Chimariko
Washo
Salinan
Karok
Chumashan
Comecrudan
Coahuiltecan
Esselen
Jicaque
Tlapanecan
Tequistlatecan

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 6. Penutian phylum

Yokuts
Maidu
Wintun
Miwok–Costanoan
Klamath–Modoc
Sahaptin–Nez Perce
Cayuse
Molale
Coos
Yakonan
Takelma
Kalapuya
Chinookan
Tsimshian
Zuni
Mixe–Zoque
Mayan
Chipaya–Uru
Totonacan
Huave

 7. Aztec–Tanoan phylum

Kiowa–Tanoan
Uto-Aztecan

8. Keres

9. Yuki

10. Beothuk

11. Kutenai

12. Karankawa

13. Chimakuan

14. Salish

15. Wakashan

16. Timucua

Chumashan, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan are included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations.

Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Campbell & Mithun's 1979 classification is more conservative, since it insists on more rigorous demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phyla of previous authors are "split".

Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)

(preliminary)

Families

Algic
Algonquian
Wiyot (> Ritwan?)
Yurok (> Ritwan?)
Na-Dene
Eyak-Athabaskan
Eyak
Athabaskan
Tlingit
Caddoan (> Macro-Siouan?)
Chimakuan
Chinookan (> Penutian?)
Chumashan [chúmash]
Comecrudan
Coosan [kus] (> Coast Penutian?)
Eskimo–Aleut
Eskimoan
Aleut = Unangan
Iroquoian
Kalapuyan [kalapúyan]
Kiowa–Tanoan
Maiduan
Muskogean
Palaihnihan (Achumawi–Atsugewi)
Pomoan
Sahaptian
Salishan
Shastan
Siouan–Catawban
Siouan
Catawban
Tsimshianic
Utian
Miwok
Costanoan
Utaztecan
Numic = Plateau
Tübatulabal = Kern
Takic = Southern California
Hopi = Pueblo
Tepiman = Pimic
Taracahitic
Tubar
Corachol
Aztecan
Wakashan
Kwakiutlan
Nootkan
Wintuan (> Coast Penutian?)
Yokutsan
Yuman–Cochimi
Yuman
Cochimi

Isolates

Adai
Alsea [alsi] (> Coast Penutian?)
Atakapa (> Tunican?)
Beothuk (unclassifiable?)
Cayuse
Chimariko
Chitimacha (> Tunican?)
Coahuilteco
Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo
Esselen
Haida
Karankawa
Karuk
Keres
Klamath-Modoc
Kootenai
Molala
Natchez
Salinan
Siuslaw (> Coast Penutian?)
Takelma
Timucua
Tonkawa
Tunica (> Tunican?)
Wappo (> Yuki–Wappo)
Washo
Yana
Yuchi (> Siouan)
Yuki (> Yuki–Wappo)
Zuni

Stocks

Yuki–Wappo, supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997)

The unity of Penutian languages outside Mexico is considered probable by many linguists:

Penutian

Tsimshianic
Chinookan
Takelma
Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998)
Maidun
Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997)
Alsea
Coosan
Siuslaw
Wintuan
Plateau
Sahaptian
Klamath
Molala
Cayuse ? (poor data)
Yok-Utian ?
Yana
Yana

Siouan–Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely:

Macro-Siouan

Iroquoian–Caddoan
Iroquoian
Caddoan
Siouan–Yuchi
Siouan–Catawban
Yuchi

Natchez–Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis

Natchez–Muskogean

Natchez
Muskogean

Hokan: most promising proposals

Hokan

Karok
Chimariko
Shastan
Palaihnihan
Yana
Washo
Pomoan
Esselen
Salinan
Yuman–Cochimi
Seri

"Unlikely" to be Hokan:

:Chumashan

:Tonkawa

:Karankawa

Subtiaba–Tlapanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977).

Aztec–Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a Sprachbund.

Campbell (2024)

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Lyle Campbell (2024) proposed the following list of 30 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 24 isolates north of Mexico – a total of 54 independent families and isolates. Language families deemed major are highlighted in bold. The remaining language families all considered small.

;Families

Algic ()
Caddoan (5)
Cochimi-Yuman (12)
Eskimo-Aleut (13)
Iroquoian (13)
Kiowa-Tanoan (7)
Muskogean (7)
Na-Dene ()
Plateau (4)
Salishan (23)
Siouan-Catawban (17)
Utian (15)
Uto-Aztecan (, of which are in Mexico and Central America)
Wakashan (6)
Chimakuan (2)
Chinookan (3)
Chumashan (6)
Comecrudan (3)
Coosan (2)
Kalapuyan (3)
Keresan (2)
Maiduan (4)
Palaihnihan (2)
Pomoan (7)
Salinan (2)
Shastan (3~4)
Tsimshianic (4)
Wintuan (2)
Yokutsan (6~7)
Yukian (2)

;Isolates

Adai
Alsea
Atakapa
Beothuk
Cayuse
Chimariko
Chitimacha
Coahuilteco
Cotoname
Esselen
Haida
Karankawa
Karuk
Kootenai
Natchez
Siuslaw
Takelma
Tonkawa
Timucua
Tunica
Washo
Yana
Yuchi
Zuni

Mesoamerica

(Consensus conservative classification)

Families

Uto-Aztecan (Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America) languages

:# Corachol (Cora–Huichol)

:# Aztecan (Nahua–Pochutec)

Totonac–Tepehua
Otomanguean

:# Otopamean

:# Popolocan–Mazatecan

:# Subtiaba–Tlapanec

:# Amuzgo

:# Mixtecan

:# Chatino–Zapotec

:# Chinantec

:# Chiapanec–Mangue (extinct)

Tequistlatecan
Mixe–Zoque
Mayan
Jicaquean
Misumalpan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America)
Chibchan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America)

:# Paya

Isolates

Purépecha
Cuitlatec (extinct)
Huave
Xinca (extinct)
Lenca (extinct)

Proposed stocks

Hokan (see North America)

:# Tequistlatec-Jicaque

Macro-Mayan (Penutian affiliation now considered doubtful.)

:# Totonac–Tepehua

:# Huave

:# Mixe–Zoque

:# Mayan

Macro-Chibchan

:# Chibchan

:# Misumalpan

:# Xinca

:# Lenca

South America

Notable early classifications of classifications of indigenous South American language families include those by Filippo Salvatore Gilii (1780–84), Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro (1784–87), Daniel Garrison Brinton (1891), Paul Rivet (1924), John Alden Mason (1950), and Čestmír Loukotka (1968). Antonio Tovar (1961; 1984), and Jorge A. Suárez (1974).

Glottolog 4.1 (2019)

Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 44 independent families and 64 isolates in South America.

;Languages of Paleo-American tribes

A. Southern Division
1. Yámana
2. Alacaluf
3. Aksanás
4. Patagon
5. Gennaken
6. Chechehet
7. Sanaviron
B. Chaco Division
8. Guaicuru
9. Vilela
10. Mataco
11. Lengua
12. Zamuco
13. Chiquito
14. Gorgotoqui
Unclassified or unknown languages of the areas of Divisions A and B.
C. Division of Central Brazil
15. Charrua
16. Kaingán
17. Opaie
18. Puri
19. Mashakali
20. Botocudo
21. Baenan
22. Kamakan
23. Fulnio
24. Jê
25. Kukura [spurious]
26. Otí
27. Boróro
28. Karajá
Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division C.
D. Northeastern Division
29. Katembri
30. Tushá
31. Pankarurú
32. Chocó
33. Umán
34. Natú
35. Shukurú
36. Kiriri
37. Tarairiú
38. Gamela
Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division D.
E. Northwestern Division
39. Múra
40. Matanawí
41. Erikbaktsa
42. Nambikwára
43. Iranshe
44. Yabutí

;Languages of tropical forest tribes

A. North Central Division
45. Tupi
46. Arawak
47. Otomac
48. Guamo
49. Taruma
50. Piaroa
51. Tinigua
52. Máku
53. Tucuna
54. Yagua
55. Kahuapana
56. Munichi
57. Cholona
58. Mayna
59. Murato
60. Auishiri
61. Itucale
62. Jíbaro
63. Sabela
64. Záparo
65. Chapacura
66. Huari
67. Capixana
68. Koaiá
69. Purubora
70. Trumai
71. Cayuvava
72. Mobima
73. Itonama
74. Canichana
Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Central Division.
B. South Central Division
75. Pano
76. Tacana
77. Toyeri
78. Yuracare
79. Mosetene
80. Guató
Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the South Central Division.
C. Languages of the Central Division
81. Tucano
82. Andoque
83. Uitoto
84. Bora
85. Yuri
86. Makú (Nadahup)
87. Catuquina
88. Arawa
Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Central Division.
D. Northeastern Division
89. Karaib
90. Yanoama
91. Uarao
92. Auaké
93. Kaliána
Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Eastern Division.

;Languages of Andean tribes

A. Northern Division
94. Chibcha
95. Timote
96. Jirajara
97. Chocó
98. Idabaez
Unclassified or unknown division.
B. North Central Division
99. Yurimangui
100. Cofán
101. Sechura
102. Catacao
103. Culli
104. Tabancale
105. Copallén
106. Chimú
C. South Central Division
107. Quechua
108. Aymara
109. Puquina
110. Uro
111. Atacama
112. Leco
Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Ancient Inca Empire.
D. Southern Division
113. Mapuche
114. Diaguit
115. Humahuaca
116. Lule
117. Huarpe

Kaufman (1990)

Families and isolates

Terrence Kaufman's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 genetic units. Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only language family, such as language area, emergent area, and language complex, where he recognizes issues such as partial mutual intelligibility and dialect continuums. The list below collapses these into simply families. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. Kaufman uses an anglicized orthography for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself. His spellings have been retained below.

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Families:

Aimoré
Arawán
Barbakóan
Bóran
Boróroan
Chapakúran
Charrúan
Chíbchan
Chimúan
Chipaya
Chokó
Cholónan
Chon
Haki
Harákmbut
Hiraháran
Hívaro
Jabutían
Jê
Kamakánan
Karajá
Káriban
Katakáoan
Katukínan
Kawapánan
Kawéskar
Kechua
Maipúrean
Mashakalían
Maskóian
Matákoan
Misumalpa
Mosetén
Múran
Nambikuara
Otomákoan
Páesan
Pánoan
Puinávean
Purían
Sálivan
Samúkoan
Sáparoan
Takánan
Timótean
Tiníwan
Tukánoan
Tupían
Wahívoan
Waikurúan
Warpe
Witótoan
Yanomáman
Yáwan

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Isolates or unclassified:

Aikaná
Andoke
Awaké
Baenã
Betoi
Chikitano
Ezmeralda
Fulnió
Gamela
Gorgotoki
Guató
Hotí
Iranshe
Itonama
Jaruro
Jeikó
Jurí
Kaliana
Kamsá
Kanichana
Kapishaná
Karirí
Katembrí
Kayuvava
Koayá
Kofán
Kandoshi
Kolyawaya jargon
Kukurá
Kulyi
Kunsa
Leko
Lule
Maku (Jukude)
Mapudungu
Matanawí
Movima
Munichi
Natú
Ofayé
Omurano
Otí
Pankararú
Puelche
Pukina
Rikbaktsá
Sabela
Sechura
Shokó
Shukurú
Tarairiú
Taruma
Tekiraka
Tikuna
Trumai
Tushá
Urarina
Vilela
Wamo
Wamoé
Warao
Yámana
Yurakare
Yurimangi

Stocks

In addition to his conservative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often obvious hyphenations of two members; for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks.

"Good" stocks:

Awaké–Kaliana (Arutani–Sape)
Chibcha–Misumalpa
Ezmeralda–Jaruro
Jurí–Tikuna
Kechumara (=Kechua + Haki) (good?)
Lule–Vilela
Mosetén–Chon (good?)
Páes–Barbakóa
Pano–Takana
Sechura–Katakao
Wamo–Chapakúra

"Probable" stocks:

Macro-Jê (=Chikitano + Boróroan + Aimoré + Rikbaktsá + Je + Jeikó + Kamakánan + Mashakalían + Purían + Fulnío + Karajá + Ofayé + Guató)
Mura–Matanawí

"Promising" stocks:

Kaliánan (=Awaké + Kaliana + Maku [Jukude])

"Maybe" stocks:

Bora–Witoto
Hívaro–Kawapana
Kunsa–Kapishaná (now abandoned)
Pukina–Kolyawaya
Sáparo–Yawa

Clusters and networks

Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms clusters and networks. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.

Campbell (2012)

Lyle Campbell (2012) proposed the following list of 53 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 55 isolates of South America – a total of 108 independent families and isolates.

† = extinct

;Families

Andoke-Urekena
Arawa
Barbakoa
Bora-Muinane
Chacha-Cholon-Hibito
Chapakura-Wañam
Charrua
Chibcha
Choko
Chon
Duho
Guahibo
Harakmbet-Katukina
Jaqi
Jirajara †
Jivaro
Karib
Kawapana
Kechua
Lengua-Maskoy
Macro-Arawak
Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru
Macro-Jê
Mapudungun
Moseten-Tsimane
Mura-Matanawi
Nambikwara
Otomako-Taparita †
Pano-Takana
Peba-Yagua
Puinave-Nadahup
Puri †
Tallan †
Timote-Kuika
Tinigua-Pamigua
Tukano
Tupi
Uru-Chipaya
Warpe †
Witoto-Okaina
Yanomami
Zamuko
Zaparo

;Isolates and unclassified languages

Aikanã
Andaki †
Arara do Rio Branco
Arutani
Atakame †
Atikum †
Aushiri †
Chono †
Guamo †
Guato
Gününa Këna
Iranche/Myky
Itonama
Kakan †
Kamsa
Kañari †
Kanichana
Kanoe
Kawesqar
Kayuvava
Kerandi †
Kimbaya †
Kingnam †
Kofan
Komechingon †
Koraveka †
Kueva †
Kulle †
Kunza †
Kuruminaka †
Kwaza
Leko
Lule †
Maku
Malibu †
Mochika †
Mokana †
Morike †
Movima
Muzo-Kolima †
Omurano
Oti †
Paez
Panche †
Pijao †
Puruha †
Sanaviron †
Sape
Sechura †
Tarairiu †
Taruma
Taushiro
Tekiraka
Trumai
Tuxa †
Umbra
Urarina
Vilela
Waorani
Warao
Xukuru †
Yagan
Yaruro
Yurakare
Yurumangui †
Zenu †

;Creoles, pidgins, and secret languages

Kallawaya
Maskoy Pidgin
Media Lengua
Ndyuka-Tiriyo

Campbell (2024)

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Lyle Campbell (2024) proposed the following list of 47 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 53 isolates of South America – a total of 100 independent families and isolates. Language families with more than 6 languages are highlighted in bold. The remaining language families all have 6 languages or fewer.

;Families

Arawakan (Maipurean, Maipuran) (~65–80) – widespread
Cariban (~40–50) – Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, etc.
Chapacuran (Txapakúran) (10) – Brazil, Bolivia
Chibchan (23) – Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica
Macro-Jê Sensu Stricto (~33) – Brazil
Pano–Takanan (~39) – Brazil, Peru, Bolivia
Quechuan (23 ?) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
Tukanoan (Tucanoan) (~29, 8 extinct) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil
Tupían (~55–70) – Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, etc.
Arawan (Arahuan, Arauan, Arawán) (6?) – Brazil, Peru
Aymaran (2) – Bolivia, Peru
Barbacoan (5) – Colombia, Ecuador
Boran (3) – Brazil, Colombia
Bororoan (3) – Brazil
Cahuapanan (3, possibly 2) – Peru
Cañar–Puruhá (2; uncertain) – Ecuador
Charruan (3) – Uruguay, Argentina
Chicham (4) – Peru, Ecuador
Chocoan (3?) – Colombia, Panama
Cholonan (2) – Peru
Chonan (Chon) (5–6?) – Argentina
Enlhet–Enenlhet Mascoyan (6) – Paraguay
Guaicuruan (Waykuruan) (5) – Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil
Guajiboan (4) – Colombia
Harákmbut–Katukinan (4) – Peru, Brazil
Huarpean (Warpean) (2) – Argentina
Jirajaran (3) – Venezuela
Kakua–Nukak (2) – Colombia, Brazil
Karirian (Karirí) (4) – Brazil
Kaweskaran (Qawasqaran, Alacalufan) (3?) – Chile
Lule–Vilelan (2) – Argentina
Mapudungun (Mapudungu, Araucano, Mapuche, Maputongo) (2) – Chile, Argentina
Matacoan (4) – Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia
Nadahup (4) – Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil
Nambikwaran (4 ?) – Brazil
Otomacoan (2) – Venezuela
Sáliban (Sálivan) (3 ?) – Venezuela, Colombia
Tallán (2) – Peru
Tikuna–Yuri (3) – Peru, Colombia, Brazil
Timotean (2) – Venezuela
Tiniguan (2) – Colombia
Uru–Chipaya (3) – Bolivia
Yaguan (3) – Peru
Witotoan (Huitotoan) (5) – Colombia, Peru
Yanomaman (4) – Venezuela, Brazil
Zamucoan (2) – Paraguay, Bolivia
Zaparoan (3–8?) – Peru, Ecuador

;Isolates

Aikaná – Brazil
Andaquí – Colombia
Andoque (Andoke) – Colombia, Peru
Arara do Rio Branco – Brazil
Arutani (Ahuaqué, Uruak) – Venezuela, Brazil
Atacameño (Cunza, Kunza, Atacama, Lipe) – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Betoi–Jirara – Colombia
Candoshi (Candoxi, Maina, Shapra, Murato) – Peru
Canichana – Bolivia
Cayuvava (Cayuwaba, Cayubaba) – Bolivia
Chiquitano – Bolivia
Chono – Chile
Cofán (A'ingaé) – Colombia, Ecuador
Culle – Peru
Esmeralda – Ecuador
Guachí – Brazil
Guamo – Venezuela
Guató – Brazil
Iatê (Furniô, Fornió, Carnijó; Yaté) – Brazil
Irantxe (Iranche, Münkü) – Brazil
Itonama (Saramo, Machoto) – Bolivia, Brazil
Jotí (Yuwana) – Venezuela
Kamsá (Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia
Kanoê (Kanoé, Kapixaná) – Brazil
Kwaza (Koayá, Koaiá, Arara) – Brazil
Leko – Bolivia
Máku (Jukude) – Brazil
Matanawí – Brazil
Mochica (Yunga, Yunca, Chimú, Mochica, Muchic) – Peru
Moseten–Chimane (Mosetén) – Bolivia
Movima – Bolivia
Munichi (Muniche, Munichino, Otanabe) – Peru
Omurano (Humurana, Numurana) – Peru
Paezan (1–3; smal family ?) – Colombia
Payaguá – Paraguay
Pirahã (Muran) (possibly family of close languages) – Brazil
Puinave (Wãnsöhöt) – Colombia, Venezuela
Purí–Coroado – Brazil
Puquina – Bolivia
Sapé (Kaliana, Caliana, Cariana, Chirichano) – Venezuela
Sechura? – Peru
Taruma (Taruamá) – Brazil, Guyana
Taushiro (Pinchi, Pinche) – Peru
Tequiraca (Tekiraka, Aushiri, Auishiri, Avishiri) – Peru
Trumai (Trumaí) – Brazil
Urarina (Simacu, Kachá, Itucale) – Peru
Waorani (Sabela, Huao, Auca, Huaorani, Auishiri) – Ecuador
Warao (Guarao, Warau, Guaruno) – Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela
Xukurú – Brazil
Yagan (Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana) – Chile
Yaruro (Pumé, Llaruro, Yaruru, Yuapín) – Venezuela
Yuracaré – Bolivia
Yurumangui – Colombia

All of the Americas

Swadesh (1960 or earlier)

Morris Swadesh further consolidated Sapir's North American classification and expanded it to group all indigenous languages of the Americas in just 6 families, 5 of which were entirely based in the Americas.

Vasco-Dene languages included the Eskimo–Aleut, Na-Dene, Wakashan and Kutenai families along with most of the languages of Eurasia.
Macro-Hokan roughly comprised a combination of Sapir's Hokan–Siouan and Almosan families and expanded into Central America including the Jicaque language.
Macro-Mayan comprising Mayan along with Sapir's Penutian and Aztec-Tanoan families, the Otomanguean languages and various languages of Central and South America including the Chibchan languages, the Paezan languages and the Tucanoan languages.
Macro-Quechua comprising the Zuni language, the Purépecha language and various languages of South America including Quechua, the Aymara language, the Panoan languages and most of the various other languages of Patagonia and the Andes.
Macro-Carib, an almost entirely South American family including the Carib languages, the Macro-Jê languages and the Jirajara languages, albeit including some Caribbean languages.
Macro-Arawak, a family primarily confined to South America and its component families included the Arawakan languages and the Tupian languages. However, it also was proposed to include the Taíno language in the Caribbean and the Timucua language in Florida.

Greenberg (1960, 1987)

Joseph Greenberg's classification in his 1987 book Language in the Americas is best known for the highly controversial assertion that all North, Central and South American language families other than Eskimo–Aleut and Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an Amerind macrofamily. This assertion of only three major American language macrofamilies is supported by DNA evidence, although the DNA evidence does not provide support for the details of his classification.

Northern Amerind
Almosan–Keresiouan
Almosan
Algic
Kutenai
Mosan
Wakashan
Salish
Chimakuan
Caddoan
Keres
Siouan
Iroquoian
Penutian
California Penutian
Maidu
Miwok–Costanoan
Wintun
Yokuts
Chinook
Mexican Penutian (=Macro-Mayan)
Huave
Mayan
Mixe–Zoque
Totonac
Oregon Penutian
Plateau Penutian
Tsimshian
Yukian
Gulf
Atakapa
Chitimacha
Muskogean
Natchez
Tunica
Zuni
Hokan
Nuclear Hokan
Northern
Karok–Shasta
Yana
Pomo
Washo
Esselen–Yuman
Salinan–Seri
Waicuri
Maratino
Quinigua
Tequistlatec
Coahuiltecan
Tonkawa
Nuclear Coahuiltecan
Karankawa
Subtiaba
Jicaque
Yurumangui
Central Amerind
Kiowa–Tanoan
Otomanguean
Uto-Aztecan
Chibchan–Paezan
Chibchan
Nuclear Chibchan
Antioquia
Aruak
Chibcha
Cuna
Guaymi
Malibu
Misumalpan
Motilon
Rama
Talamanca
Paya
Purépecha
Xinca
Yanomam
Yunca–Puruhan
Paezan
Allentiac
Atacama
Betoi
Chimu
Itonama
Jirajara
Mura
Nuclear Paezan
Andaqui
Barbacoa
Choco
Paez
Timucua
Warrao
Andean (Greenberg (1960) joined Andean and Equatorial, but Greenberg (1987) did not)
Aymara
Itucale–Sabela
Itucale
Mayna
Sabela
Cahuapana–Zaparo
Cahuapano
Zaparo
Northern
Catacao
Cholona
Culli
Leco
Sechura
Quechua
Southern
Qawesqar
Mapundungu
Gennaken
Patagon
Yamana
Equatorial–Tucanoan
Equatorial
Macro-Arawakan
Arawakan
Guahibo
Katembri
Otomaco
Tinigua
Cayuvava
Coche
Jivaro–Kandoshi
Cofan
Esmeralda
Jivaro
Kandoshi
Yaruro
Kariri–Tupi
Kariri
Tupian
Piaroa
Taruma
Timote
Trumai
Tusha
Yuracare
Zamucoan
Tucanoan
Auixiri
Canichana
Capixana
Catuquina
Gamella
Huari
Iranshe
Kaliana–Maku
Auake
Kaliana
Maku
Koaia
Movima
Muniche
Nambikwara
Natu
Pankaruru
Puinave
Shukura
Ticuna–Yuri
Ticuna
Yuri
Tucanoan
Uman
Jê–Pano–Carib
Macro-Jê
Bororo
Botocudo
Caraja
Chiquito
Erikbatsa
Fulnio
Jê–Kaingang
Jê
Kaingang
Guato
Kamakan
Mashakali
Opaie
Oti
Puri
Yabuti
Macro-Panoan
Charruan
Lengua
Lule–Vilela
Lule
Vilela
Mataco–Guaicuru
Guaicuru
Mataco
Moseten
Pano–Tacanan
Panoan
Tacanan
Macro-Carib
Andoke
Bora–Uitoto
Boro
Uitoto
Carib
Kukura
Yagua

Mixed languages

In American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America, Lyle Campbell describes various pidgins and trade languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these mixed languages have not been documented and are known only by name.

Medny Aleut (Copper Island Aleut)
Chinook Jargon
Broken Slavey (Slavey Jargon)
Loucheux Jargon
Michif (French Cree, Métis, Metchif)
Broken Oghibbeway (Broken Ojibwa)
Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada)
Delaware Jargon
Pidgin Massachusett
Jargonized Powhatan
Lingua Franca Creek
Lingua Franca Apalachee
Mobilian Jargon
Güegüence-Nicarao (formerly spoken in Nicaragua)
Carib Pidgin or Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin (Ndjuka-Trio)
Carib Pidgin-Arawak mixed language
Media Lengua
Catalangu
Callahuaya (Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya)
Nheengatú or Lingua Geral Amazonica ("Lingua Boa," Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
Lingua Geral do Sul or Lingua Geral Paulista (Tupí Austral)
Labrador Eskimo Pidgin
Hudson Strait Pidgin Eskimo (spoken from 1750–1850)
Nootka Jargon (18th–19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon)
Trader Navajo
Yopará (Guaraní-Spanish pidgin)
Afro-Seminole Creole (variety of Gullah)
Haida Jargon
Kutenai Jargon
Guajiro-Spanish mixed language

Lingua francas

Ocaneechi (spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times)
Tuscarora language
Plains sign language

Linguistic areas

Notes and references

Bibliography

See:

External links

Native American Language Net
Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL)
Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors, The University of Texas at Austin
The Intercontinental Dictionary Series

North America

Glottolog 4.1 (2019)

Gallatin (1836)

Gallatin (1848)

Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

Rivet (1924)

Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)

Campbell (2024)

Mesoamerica

South America

Glottolog 4.1 (2019)

Kaufman (1990)

Families and isolates

Stocks

Clusters and networks

Campbell (2012)

Campbell (2024)

All of the Americas

Swadesh (1960 or earlier)

Greenberg (1960, 1987)

Mixed languages

Linguistic areas

See also

Notes and references

Bibliography

External links