Circassian (; ), also known as Cherkess ( ), is a subdivision of the Northwest Caucasian language family, spoken by the Circassian people. There are two main variants of the Circassian language, defined by their literary standards, Adyghe (; also known as West Circassian) and Kabardian (; also known as East Circassian). Despite phonological differences, Circassian languages are reciprocally intelligible, with speakers being able to communicate with varying degrees of efficiency. Some reject the distinction between the two languages in favour of both being dialects of a unitary Circassian language, others argue they are closely related but technically distinct languages.
Adyghe and Kabardian are generally considered typologically distinct languages. However, the local terms for these languages refer to them as dialects. The Circassian people call themselves (Adyghe) in their native language. While the self-designation for both Adyghe and Kabardian language is Adyghe, in linguistic and administrative terms, "Adyghe" refers specifically to the language of the western tribes of Circassians, while "Kabardian" refers to the language of the two eastern tribes (Kabardians and Besleney).
In the southwestern part of European Russia, there is also a Federal Subject called Adygea (, ), enclaved within Krasnodar Krai, which is named after the Circassian endonym. In the Russian language, the Circassian subdivision is treated as a group of languages and called (, meaning the Adyghe languages), whereas the Adyghe language is called (, "Adygean," meaning the language of those in the Republic of Adygea). The term , meaning Adygean, has thus been mistranslated to English as "Adyghe language". The terms Circassian and Cherkess are sometimes used in several languages as synonyms for the Northwest Caucasian languages in general or the Adyghe language in particular.
Circassian languages
thumb|right|Yinal speaking Adyghe and Kabardian.
- Circassian languages
- Adyghe language
- The Black Sea coast dialects
- Zhaney dialect
- Natukhai dialect (; )
- Shapsug dialect (; )
- North Shapsugs, Great Shapsugs, Kuban Shapsugs dialect (; )
- Kfar Kama dialect (; ): Shapsug dialect spoken by the villagers of Kfar Kama in Israel.
- Temirgoy-Shapsugs, Pseuşko accent (; )
- South Shapsugs, Small Shapsugs, Coastal Shapsugs Black Sea Shapsugs (; ) dialect.
- Hakuchi dialect (; )
- The Kuban river dialects
- Bzhedug dialect (; ): Spoken by the Circassians in Republic of Adygea and Biga.
- Temirgoy (; ): Literary Adyghe. Also spoken by the Circassians in Republic of Adygea.
- Abzakh dialect (; ): Spoken by the Circassians in Rehaniya in Israel and the Circassians in Syria from Golan Heights.
- Mamkhegh dialect
- Yegeruqway dialect
- Hatuqay dialect
- Makhosh dialect
- Kabardian language
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | Sound Change
! rowspan="2" | Examples (Adyghe ↔ Kabardian)
|-
! style="width: 10%; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | Adyghe
! style="width: 10%; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | Kabardian
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | a
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | э
|
- ↔ (Adyghe)
- ↔ (rich)
- ↔ (lion)
- ↔ (tiger)
- ↔ (world)
- ↔ (ear)
- ↔ (letter)
- ↔ (pigeon)
- ↔ (ugly)
- ↔ (worm)
- ↔ (no)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ы
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | э
|
- ↔ (mother)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | э
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | ы
|
- ↔ (lilac)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | а
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | ы
|
- ↔ (cloth)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | и
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | ы
|
- ↔ (angel)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ы
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | и
|
- ↔ (child)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ы
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | е
|
- ↔ (kidney)
- ↔ (hazelnut)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ц
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | дз
|
- ↔ (tooth)
- ↔ (mouse)
- ↔ (fish)
- ↔ (grass)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | цу
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | в
|
- ↔ (ox)
- ↔ (shoe)
- ↔ (raven)
- ↔ (ploughshare)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ч
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | ж
|
- ↔ (cow)
- ↔ (tree)
- ↔ (night)
- ↔ (village, settlement)
- ↔ (to count)
- ↔ (to run)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ч
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | дж
|
- ↔ (cat)
- ↔ (chicken)
- ↔ (glass)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ч
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | щ
|
- ↔ (king)
- ↔ (iron)
- ↔ (question)
- ↔ (button)
- ↔ (cold)
- ↔ (morning)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | дз
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | з
|
- ↔ (watermelon)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | дж
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | ж
|
- ↔ (fox)
- ↔ (arch, bridge)
- ↔ (death)
- ↔ (flour)
- ↔ (knee)
- ↔ (village)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | жь
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | з
|
- ↔ (him, itself)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | жъ
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | жь
|
- ↔ (old)
- ↔ (bowl, horn, slander)
- ↔ (to fry, to grill)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ж
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | жь
|
- ↔ (autumn)
- ↔ (beard)
- ↔ (flea)
- ↔ (mouth)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | жъу
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | в
|
- ↔ (star)
- ↔ (narrow)
- ↔ (wide)
- ↔ (to boil)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ш
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | щ
|
- ↔ (melon)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | щ
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | ш
|
- ↔ (milk)
- ↔ (tea)
- ↔ (salt)
- ↔ (fund, money)
- ↔ (arrow)
- ↔ (donkey)
- ↔ (fear)
- ↔ (black pepper)
- ↔ (noon)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | шъ
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | щ
|
- ↔
- ↔ (head)
- ↔ (lamp)
- ↔ (gold)
- ↔ (girl)
- ↔ (bear)
- ↔ (animal)
- ↔ (100)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | шӀ
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | щӀ
|
- ↔ (to do)
- ↔ (to know)
- ↔ (life)
- ↔ (ten)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | кӀ
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | щӀ
|
- ↔ (new)
- ↔ (young-man)
- ↔ (to launder, to wash)
- ↔ (to go off on)
- ↔ (above)
- ↔ (few)
- ↔ (guest)
- ↔ (key)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | шъу
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | ф
|
- ↔ (honey)
- ↔ (wife)
- ↔ (to drink)
- ↔ (sky)
- ↔ (green)
- ↔ (dance)
- ↔ (color, skin, you (plural))
- ↔ (blind)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | шӀу
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | фӀ
|
- ↔ (well, good)
- ↔ (fire)
- ↔ (black)
- ↔ (coal)
- ↔ (weather)
- ↔ (sweet)
- ↔ (sweet)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | ф
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | ху
|
- ↔ (white)
- ↔ (work, job)
- ↔ (day)
- ↔ (summer)
- ↔ (person)
- ↔ (hot)
- ↔ (want, need)
- ↔ (like)
- ↔ (light)
- ↔ (maize)
- ↔ (to forgive)
- ↔ (garlic)
- ↔ (woman)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | хь
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | хъ
|
- ↔ (more)
- ↔ (younger brother)
- ↔ (older brother)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | къ
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | кхъ
|
- ↔ (grave)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | къу
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | кхъу
|
- ↔ (cheese)
- ↔ (pear)
- ↔ (ship)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | т
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | д
|
- ↔ (we)
- ↔ (shoulder)
- ↔ (stamp, letter)
- ↔ (wolf)
- ↔ (yesterday)
- ↔ (father)
- ↔ (silver)
- ↔ (minute)
- ↔ (rooster, cock)
- ↔ (garden)
- ↔ (duck)
- ↔ (leader, boss)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | п
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | б
|
- ↔ (thorn)
- ↔ (hard)
- ↔ (goat)
- ↔ (enemy)
- ↔ (today)
- ↔ (to count)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | м
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | н
|
- ↔ (monkey)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | н
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | Ø
|
- ↔ (mirror)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | -Ø
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | -р
|
- ↔
- ↔
- ↔
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | -Ø
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | -щ
|
- ↔
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #e8f4f8;" | Ø-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; background-color: #f8e8e8;" | и-
|
- ↔ (yet)
|}
Ergative–absolutive
The following example shows an ergative–absolutive case marking system while using the same verb "break" in both intransitive and transitive forms:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="7" align="center" | Ergative language
|-
! Sentence:
| colspan="2" | ӏанэр мэкъутэ.
|
| colspan="3" | Лӏым ӏанэр екъутэ.
|-
! Word:
| ӏанэ<span style="color:#008000">-р</span>
| мэкъутэ
|
| Лӏы<span style="color:#800000">-м</span>
| ӏанэ<span style="color:#008000">-р</span>
| екъутэ
|-
! Gloss:
| The table<span style="color:#008000">-<small>ABS</small></span>
| breaks
|
| The man<span style="color:#800000">-<small>ERG</small></span>
| the table<span style="color:#008000">-<small>ABS</small></span>
| breaks
|-
! Function:
| <span style="color:#008000">S</span>
| VERB<sub>intrans</sub>
|
| <span style="color:#800000">A</span>
| <span style="color:#008000">O</span>
| VERB<sub>trans</sub>
|-
! Translation:
| colspan="2" | "The table breaks."
|
| colspan="3" | "The man breaks the table."
|}
Here, "table" has the absolutive case mark -р /-r/ while "man" has the ergative case mark -м /-m/. The verb "break" is in the intransitive form "мэкъутэ" and the transitive form "екъутэ". The example above specifically shows SOV order, but Circassian allows any order.
Loanwords
Circassian languages contain "many loan-words from Arabic, Turkish, Persian (particularly in the area of religion) and Russian".
See also
- Circassia
References
Sources
Literature
- A Dictionary of the Circassian Language, in Two Parts. By Dr. L. Loewe.
- Кумахов М. А. Адыгские языки // Языки мира. Кавказские языки. М., 1999. (in Russian)