Chinese calligraphy

Chinese calligraphy is the writing of Chinese characters as an art form, combining visual art and interpretation of their literary meaning. This type of expression has been widely practiced in China and has been generally held in high esteem across East Asia. Calligraphy is considered one of the four most-sought skills and hobbies of ancient Chinese literati, along with playing stringed musical instruments, the board game "Go", and painting. There is some general standardization of the various styles of calligraphy in this tradition. Chinese calligraphy and ink and wash painting are closely related: they are accomplished using similar tools and techniques, and have a long history of shared artistry. Distinguishing features of Chinese painting and calligraphy include an emphasis on motion charged with dynamic life. According to Stanley-Baker, "Calligraphy is sheer life experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time and rhythm in shifting space its main ingredients." Calligraphy has also led to the development of many forms of art in China, including seal carving, ornate paperweights, and inkstones.

Characteristics

In China, calligraphy is referred to as shūfǎ or fǎshū (書法/书法, 法書/法书), literally 'way/method/law of writing'; shodō () in Japan ('way/principle of writing'); and seoye (서예; 書藝) in Korea ('skill/criterion of writing'); thư pháp (書法) in Vietnam ('handwriting art').

Chinese calligraphy appreciated more or only for its aesthetic quality has a long tradition. Today it is regarded as one of the arts (Chinese 藝術/艺术 , a relatively recent word in Chinese) in the countries where it is practised. Chinese calligraphy focuses not only on methods of writing but also on cultivating one's character (人品) and taught as a pursuit (－書法; , rules of writing Han characters).

Chinese calligraphy used to be popular in China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Hong Kong. In Taiwan, students were requested to write Chinese calligraphy starting from primary school all the way to junior high school on a weekly basis at least to the year 1980.

Chinese script styles

Oracle bone script

thumb|Oracle bone fragment, [[Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1046 BC)]]

Oracle bone script was an early form of Chinese characters written on animals' bones. Written on oracle bones—animal bones or turtle plastrons—it is the earliest known form of Chinese writing. The bones were believed to have prophecies written on them. The first appearance of what we recognize unequivocally to refer as "oracle bone inscriptions" comes in the form of inscribed ox scapulae and turtle plastrons from sites near modern Anyang (安陽) on the northern border of Henan province. The vast majority were found at the Yinxu site in this region. They record pyromantic divinations of the last nine kings of the Shang dynasty, beginning with Wu Ding, whose accession is dated by different scholars at 1250 BC or 1200 BC. Though there is no proof that the Shang dynasty was solely responsible for the origin of writing in China, neither is there evidence of recognizable Chinese writing from any earlier time or any other place. The late Shang oracle bone writings constitute the earliest significant corpus of Chinese writing and it is also the oldest known member and ancestor of the Chinese family of scripts, preceding the Chinese bronze inscriptions.

Chinese bronze inscriptions

Chinese bronze inscriptions were usually written on the Chinese ritual bronzes. These Chinese ritual bronzes include Ding (鼎), Dui (敦), Gu (觚), Guang (觥), Gui (簋), Hu (壺), Jia (斝), Jue (爵), Yi (匜), You (卣), Zun (尊), and Yi (彝). Different time periods used different methods of inscription. Shang bronze inscriptions were nearly all cast at the same time as the implements on which they appear. In later dynasties such as Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn period, the inscriptions were often engraved after the bronze was cast. Bronze inscriptions are one of the earliest scripts in the Chinese family of scripts, preceded by the oracle bone script.

Seal script

x90px|class=skin-invert-image|The character for "ten thousand" in the Mount Yi Stele

x90px|class=skin-invert-image|The character "法" in the Qin imperial edict plaques

x90px|class=skin-invert-image|A Qin dynasty seal with the inscription "Yiyang Jin Yin" on it

x90px|class=skin-invert-image|Qin Seal Examples Rubbings

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Seal script (Chinese: 篆書; pinyin: zhuànshū) is an ancient style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of the Zhou dynasty script. The Qin variant of seal script eventually became the standard, and was adopted as the formal script for all of China during the Qin dynasty.

Clerical script

x90px|class=skin-invert-image|The character "愚" in the Yi Ying Stele

x90px|class=skin-invert-image|The character "為" in the Feizhi Stele

x90px|class=skin-invert-image|The character "君" in the Cao Quan Stele

x90px|class=skin-invert-image|The character for dragon in the Zhang Qian Stele

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The clerical script (traditional Chinese: 隸書; simplified Chinese: 隶书; pinyin: lìshū) is an archaic style of Chinese calligraphy. The clerical script was first used during the Han dynasty and has lasted up to the present. The clerical script is considered a form of the modern script though it was replaced by the standard script relatively early. This occurred because the graphic forms written in a mature clerical script closely resemble those written in standard script. The first master of regular script is Zhong Yao. Zhong Yao first used regular script to write some very serious pieces such as memorials to the emperor. It would appear that cǎo in the term caoshu "grass script" was used in this same sense. The term cǎoshū has broad and narrow meanings. In the broad sense, it is non-temporal and can refer to any characters which have been hastily written. In the narrow sense, it refers to the specific handwriting style in Han dynasty.

History

Ancient China

Chinese characters can be retraced to 4000 BC signs ().

In 2003, at the site of Xiaoshuangqiao, about 20 km south-east of the ancient Zhengzhou Shang City, ceramic inscriptions dating to 1435–1412 BC have been found by archaeologists. These writings are made in cinnabar paint. Thus, the dates of writing in China have been confirmed for the Middle Shang period.

The ceramic ritual vessel vats that bear these cinnabar inscriptions were all unearthed within the palace area of this site. They were unearthed mostly in the sacrificial pits holding cow skulls and cow horns, but also in other architectural areas. The inscriptions are written on the exterior and interior of the rim, and the exterior of the belly of the large type of vats. The characters are mostly written singly; character compounds or sentences are rarely seen. In Imperial China, the graphs on old steles—some dating from 200 BC, and in xiǎozhuàn style (small seal script)—are still accessible.

Scribes in China and Mongolia practiced the art of calligraphy to copy Buddhist texts. Since these texts were so venerated, the act of copying them down (and the beautiful calligraphy employed) was supposed to have a purifying effect on the soul. "The Act of copying them [Buddhist texts] could bring a scribe closer to perfection and earn him merit."

In about 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huang (秦始皇, 259–210 BC), the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among them Li Si's (李斯, 246 BC – 208 BC) character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized xiǎozhuàn characters. Although the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, little paper survives from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.

thumb|[[Emperor Huizong of Song|Emperor Huizong (宋徽宗, 1082–1135), Auspicious Cranes (瑞鶴圖), Northern Song dynasty. The emperor’s inscription in slender-gold script (shòujīnshū), written directly on the painting, forms an integral part of the composition, asserting both aesthetic refinement and imperial authority.]]

thumb|The Daguanshengzuo Stele (大觀聖作之碑), inscribed with imperial calligraphy by Emperor Huizong, early 12th century CE.

The lìshū style (clerical script) which is more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text, were also authorised under Qin Shi Huang. While it is a common mistake to believe that lishu was created by Cheng Miao alone during Qin Shi Huang's regime, lishu was developed from pre-Qin era to the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).

During the fourth century AD, calligraphy came to full maturity.

thumb|[[Wen Zhengming (文徵明, 1470–1559), Calligraphy, Ming dynasty. Princeton University Art Museum.]]

Cursive styles such as xíngshū (semi-cursive or running script) and cǎoshū (cursive or sloppy script) are less constrained and faster, where more movements made by the writing implement are visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from clerical script, at the same time as regular script (Han dynasty 202 BC – 220 AD), but xíngshū and cǎoshū were used for personal notes only and were never used as a standard. Caoshu style was highly appreciated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (140 BC – 87 BC). Calligraphy brushes are widely considered an extension of the calligrapher's arm.

Today, calligraphy may also be done using a pen.

Paper

thumb|250px|right|Calligraphy tools

Paper is frequently sold together with a paperweight and desk pad.

Some people insist that Chinese calligraphy should use special papers, such as Xuan paper, Maobian paper, Lianshi paper etc. Any modern papers can be used for brush writing. Because of the long-term uses, Xuan paper became well known by most Chinese calligraphers.

In China, Xuanzhi (宣紙), traditionally made in Anhui province, is the preferred type of paper. It is made from the Tatar wingceltis (Pteroceltis tatarianovii), as well as other materials including rice, the paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), bamboo, hemp, etc.

In Japan, washi is made from the kozo (paper mulberry), ganpi (Wikstroemia sikokiana), and mitsumata (Edgeworthia papyrifera), as well as other materials such as bamboo, rice, and wheat.

Paperweights

Paperweights are used to hold down paper. A paperweight is often placed at the top of all but the largest pages to prevent slipping; for smaller pieces the left hand is also placed at the bottom of the page for support. Paperweights come in several types: some are oblong wooden blocks carved with calligraphic or pictorial designs; others are essentially small sculptures of people or animals. Like ink stones, paperweights are collectible works of art on their own right.

Desk pads

The desk pad (Chinese T: 畫氈, S: 画毡, Pinyin: huàzhān; Japanese: 下敷 shitajiki) is a pad made of felt. Some are printed with grids on both sides, so that when it is placed under the translucent paper, it can be used as a guide to ensure correct placement and size of characters. However, these printed pads are used only by students. Both desk pads and the printed grids come in a variety of sizes.

Ink and inkstick

thumb|250px|right|Using an ink stick and inkstone

left|150px|thumb|Brush-washers for removing excess ink are essential tools in the traditional art of Chinese calligraphy.

Ink is made from lampblack (soot) and binders, and comes in inksticks which must be rubbed with water on an inkstone until the right consistency is achieved. Much cheaper, pre-mixed bottled inks are now available, but these are used primarily for practice as stick inks are considered higher quality and chemical inks are more prone to bleeding over time, making them less suitable for use in hanging scrolls. Learning to rub the ink is an essential part of calligraphy study. Traditionally, Chinese calligraphy is written only in black ink, but modern calligraphers sometimes use other colors. Calligraphy teachers use a bright orange or red ink with which they write practice characters on which students trace, or to correct students' work.

Inkstone

Commonly made from stone, ceramic, or clay, an inkstone is used to grind the solid inkstick into liquid ink and to contain the ink once it is liquid. Chinese inkstones are highly prized as art objects and an extensive bibliography is dedicated to their history and appreciation, especially in China.

Seal and seal paste

thumb|250px|right|Using seal paste with a Chinese seal

Calligraphic works are usually completed by the calligrapher applying one or more seals in red ink. The seal can serve the function of a signature.

Technique

The shape, size, stretch, and type of hair in the brush, the color and density of the ink, as well as the absorptive speed and surface texture of the paper are the main physical parameters influencing the final result. The calligrapher also influences the result by the quantity of ink/water he lets the brush take up, then by the pressure, inclination, and direction he gives to the brush, producing thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, acceleration and deceleration of the writer's moves and turns, and the stroke order give "spirit" to the characters by influencing greatly their final shape. The "spirit" is referred to yi in Chinese calligraphy. Yi means "intention or idea" in Chinese. The more practice a calligrapher has, their technique will transfer from youyi (intentionally making a piece of work) to wuyi (creating art with unintentional moves). Wuyi is considered a higher stage for calligraphers, which require the calligrapher to have perfect control over the brush and wrist and following their heart.

Study

Traditionally, the bulk of the study of calligraphy is composed of copying strictly exemplary works from the apprentice's master or from reputed calligraphers, thus learning them by rote. The master showing the 'right way' to draw items, which the apprentice have to copy strictly, continuously, until the move becomes instinctive and the copy perfect. Deviation from the model is seen as a failure.

Chinese calligraphy is being promoted in Chinese schools to counter character amnesia brought on by technology usage. It contributes to the development of children at a young age, teaching them perseverance, creativity, discipline, and more.

In recent study, Chinese calligraphy writing have been used as cognitive intervention strategy among older adults or people with mild cognitive impairment. For example, in a recent randomized control trial experiment, calligraphy writing enhanced both working memory and attention control compared to controlled groups.

In contemporary China, a small but significant number of practitioners have made calligraphy their profession, and provincial and national professional societies exist, membership in which conferring considerable prestige. By tradition, the price of a particular artist's work is priced in terms of the length of paper on which it is written. Works by well-regarded contemporary calligraphers may fetch thousands to tens of thousands of yuan (renminbi) per chi (a unit of length, roughly equal to a foot) of artwork. As with other artwork, the economic value of calligraphy has increased in recent years as the newly rich in China search for safe investments for their wealth.

Rules of modern calligraphy

While appreciating calligraphy depends on individual preferences, there are established traditional rules and those who repeatedly violate them are not considered legitimate calligraphers.

Cultural values

Notion of Wenhua

Handwriting is one of the emblems that cultivates an individual’s Chinese personhood. This is determined by a person’s wenhua文化, which is broken into two different parts. “Hua” 化 means the act of transformation or change in direction, and “wen”文 signifies cultivation, literary competence, and written text. “Wenhua” can have several meanings depending on the context, but one can interpret it as one's cultivation through writing. have developed their own specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy while incorporating Chinese influences, as well as applying to specific scripts.

Japan

Japanese calligraphy extends beyond Han characters to also include local scripts such as hiragana and katakana.

Chinese calligraphy greatly influenced Japan through the introduction of Kanji around the 5th–6th centuries. Japanese people learned to write using Chinese brush techniques and styles, such as Kaisho (regular), Gyōsho (semi-cursive), and Sōsho (cursive). Over time, these techniques inspired the creation of Kana scripts, which made writing poetry and literature more flowing and expressive. Japanese calligraphy (Shodō,) also incorporated ideas from Zen Buddhism, focusing on simplicity, balance, and the beauty of empty space, creating a unique Japanese style. Calligraphy in Japan became not only a way of writing but also a respected art form, often practiced by scholars, monks, and artists, and integrated into painting, poetry, and other cultural expressions.

Korea

In the case of Korean calligraphy, the Hangeul and the existence of the circle required the creation of a new technique.

In Korea, Chinese calligraphy arrived as early as the 4th century with the adoption of Hanja for government documents, literature, and Buddhist texts. Korean writers initially imitated Chinese styles and brush techniques, but over time they developed their own style with smoother, more rounded strokes. When Hangul was created in the 15th century, these brush techniques were applied to the new alphabet, combining Chinese-inspired artistic skills with Korean design, which gave Korea its own elegant calligraphy . Korean calligraphy (Seoye) became an important cultural practice. It was not only a way to communicate but also a form of artistic and intellectual expression.

Vietnam

In the case of Vietnamese calligraphy, the same styles and techniques have evolved to apply to Chữ Nôm and Latin script.

Chinese calligraphy influenced Vietnam for over a thousand years, as the Vietnamese used Chữ Hán (classical Chinese characters) for official documents and Chữ Nôm, a local script based on Chinese characters. Brush techniques, such as controlling line thickness, stroke order, and rhythm, were essential. Vietnamese calligraphers followed Chinese artistic principles but added their own cultural style, creating writing that was both precise and expressive, often showing a sense of beauty, movement, and personal expression. Calligraphy in Vietnam was highly valued in literature, scholarship, and even popular festivals, making it an important part of both official and cultural life.

Other arts

Water calligraphy

thumb|Water calligraphy or ground calligraphy is a popular pastime in China.

The existence of temporary calligraphy, or water calligraphy, is also to be noted. This is the practice of water-only calligraphy on the floor which dries out within minutes. This practice is especially appreciated by the new generation of retired Chinese in public parks in China.

Ink wash painting

Calligraphy has influenced ink wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and techniques. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including Ink wash painting, a style of Chinese, Japanese, Korean painting, and Vietnamese based entirely on calligraphy.

Notable Chinese calligraphers

Qin dynasty

Li Si 李斯 (280–208BC)

Han dynasty

Cai Yong 蔡邕(132–192)
Zhang Zhi 張芝 (?–192)

Three Kingdoms

Zhong Yao 鍾繇 (151–230)

Jin dynasty

Wei Shuo 衞鑠 (272–349)
Lu Ji 陸機 (261–303)
Wang Xizhi 王羲之 (303–361)
Wang Xianzhi 王獻之 (344–386)
Wang Xun 王珣 (349–400)

Sui dynasty

Zhiyong 智永 (floruit circa 6th century)
Ding Daohu 丁道護 (floruit circa 6th century)

Tang dynasty

Ouyang Xun 歐陽詢 (557–641)
Yu Shinan 虞世南 (558–638)
Chu Suiliang 褚遂良 (597–658)
Huairen 懷仁 (ca. 7th century)
Emperor Taizong of Tang 唐太宗李世民 (599–649)
Li Yangbing 李陽冰 (721/2–785)
Zhang Xu 張旭 (658–747)
Yan Zhenqing 顏眞卿 (709–785)
Huaisu 懷素 (737–799)
Liu Gongquan 柳公權 (778–865)
Du Mu 杜牧 (803–852)

Five Dynasties

Yang Ningshi 楊凝式 (873–954)

Song dynasty

Cai Xiang 蔡襄 (1012–1067)
Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037–1101)
Huang Tingjian 黃庭堅 (1045–1105)
Mi Fu 米黻 (1051–1107)
Emperor Huizong of Song 宋徽宗趙佶 (1082–1135)
Emperor Gaozong of Song 宋高宗趙構 (1107–1187)
Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200)

Yuan dynasty

Zhao Mengfu 趙孟頫 (1254–1322)
Ni Zan 倪瓚 (1301–1374)

Ming dynasty

Tang Yin 唐寅 (1470–1524)
Wen Zhengming 文徵明 (1470–1559)
Dong Qichang 董其昌 (1555–1636)
Huang Ruheng 黃汝亨 (1558–1626)
Wang Duo 王鐸 (1592–1652)
Fu Shan 傅山 (1607–1684)

Qing dynasty

Zhu Da 朱耷 (1626–1705)
Zheng Xie 鄭燮 (1693–1765)
Yang Shoujing 楊守敬 (1839–1915)

Modern times

Wu Changshuo 吳昌碩 (1844–1927)
Kang Youwei 康有為 (1858–1927)
Hong Yi 弘一法師 (1880–1942)

Gallery

File:LantingXu.jpg|A copy of Wang Xizhi's Lantingji Xu, the most famous Chinese calligraphic work.

File:Wang Xizhi Huang Ting Jing.jpg|Part of a stone rubbing of 黄庭经 by Wang Xizhi

File:Wang Xizhi Shang Yu Tie.jpg|A copy of 上虞帖 by Wang Xizhi

File:Wang Xianzhi Imitation by Tang Dynasty.jpg|A Tang dynasty copy of 新婦地黃湯帖 by Wang Xianzhi

File:KaishuOuyangxun.jpg|Part of a stone rubbing of by Ouyang Xun

File:Sheng jiao xu.jpg|Part of a stone rubbing of 雁塔聖教序 by Chu Suiliang

File:Yan Qinli Stele.jpg|Part of a stone rubbing of 顏勤禮碑 by Yan Zhenqing

File:Koku Saitcho shounin.jpg|Cry for noble Saichō by Emperor Saga

File:This Letter written by Mi Fei.jpg|A work of semi-cursive and cursive by Mi Fu

File:Songhuizong.jpg|A work by Emperor Huizong of Song

File:Chusa-Buliseonrando-01.jpg|Buiseonrando by Kim Jeonghui

File:Clear image of Lệnh thư.jpg|An edict written by Emperor Cảnh Hưng.

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References

Burckhardt, O. "The Rhythm of the Brush" Quadrant, Vol 53, No 6, (June 2009) pp. 124–126. A review-essay that explores the motion of the brush as the hallmark of Chinese calligraphy.
Daniels O, Dictionary of Japanese (Sōsho) Writing Forms, Lunde Humphries, 1944 (reprinted 1947)
Deng Sanmu 鄧散木, Shufa Xuexi Bidu 書法學習必讀. Hong Kong Taiping Book Department Publishing 香港太平書局出版: Hong Kong, 1978.
Emmanuelle Lesbre, Jianlong Liu: La Peinture Chinoise. Hazan, Paris, 2005, .
Kwo, Da-Wei (David) (1981) [1990]. Chinese Brushwork in Calligraphy and Painting: Its History Aesthetics and Techniques. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
Ouyang, Zhongshi & Fong, Wen C., Eds, Chinese Calligraphy, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2008.
Qiu Xigui, Chinese Writing, Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 2000. .

External links

Chinese Calligraphy – Dao of Calligraphy in English & Mandarin Chinese
Chinese Calligraphy at China Online Museum
Chinese calligraphy
Styles of Chinese calligraphy
Models of Chinese calligraphy – Generator of Chinese calligraphy model
History of Chinese Calligraphy
Basic Calligraphy Styles From Taoism contains introductory comparisons of different calligraphy styles of basic characters.
The History of Chinese Calligraphy at BeyondCalligraphy.com
Introduction of Chinese Ground Calligraphy or Dishu – mildchina
名家书法 (Masters of Calligraphy). Enter a character, click, and see range of variations for that character by different calligraphic masters.