Chinese Buddhism

Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism () is a Sinicized form of Mahayana Buddhism, which draws on the Chinese Buddhist canon () , there are an estimated 42 to 53 million Chinese Buddhists in the People's Republic of China. It is also a major religion in Taiwan and Singapore, as well as among the Chinese diaspora. The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations (along with Taoist and Confucian works) into a Chinese Buddhist canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the countries of the East Asian cultural sphere, such as North Korea, South Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, Pure Land, and Zhenyan Buddhism.

From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by pre-existing Chinese religions and philosophy, especially Confucianism and Taoism, but also Chinese folk religion. The Chinese Buddhist canon also draws from those traditions and their rituals.

History

thumb|260px|[[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Buddhist expansion in Asia: Mahayana Buddhism first entered the Chinese Empire (Han dynasty) through the Silk Road during the Kushan Era. The overland and maritime Silk Roads were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".]]

thumb|260px|[[White Horse Temple in Luoyang, one of the earliest Chinese Buddhist temples]]

thumb|260px|Buddhist temple at [[Mount Wutai|Wutaishan]]

thumb|260px|Buddhist art from the [[Mogao Caves at Dunhuang (Gansu). Dunhuang was a thriving center of Buddhism between 500 and 1000 CE.]]

thumb|260px|Statues at [[Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang]]

The establishment of Buddhism in China

Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to China during the Han dynasty, and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the common era. Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian Silk Road and the maritime routes. Initially, Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism. The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions. There was also much criticism leveled at the new foreign religion by the Confucian elites. During this early period, the Dharmaguptaka school was influential in establishing Buddhism in China. This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's Vinaya (monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools.

In the 4th-century, northern China fell into political upheaval and division during the Sixteen Kingdoms period (304–439). Many of these kingdoms were led by non-Han rulers, who were drawn to Buddhism partially due to its foreign elements. Monks such as Fotu Cheng (232–348) held high-ranking government positions, and the common people were allowed to freely practice the religion. Buddhism's growing popularity also permeated to the south, where the Chinese Eastern Jin dynasty (318–420) ruled.

The arrival of the Kuchan scholar Kumārajīva (334–413) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor. The high-quality translations produced by his disciples had a significant impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called Sanlun (the Three Treatise school). His work also established an Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy.

By the 460s, Buddhism was a mainstream institution in China, and its iconography and art were widely recognized. The Dunhuang and Yungang cave complexes are great examples of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period.

Another important translator was Paramārtha (, 499–569 CE), who, along with his Chinese disciples, translated numerous works on Abhidharma, Yogachara philosophy, and other Mahayana texts. The work of other sixth-century translators such as Bodhiruci and Ratnamati also contributed to the establishment of a new Chinese Yogacara school, also known as the Consciousness-Only school ().

The development of a Chinese Buddhism

thumb|The Great Buddha Hall of [[Nanchan Temple at Mount Wutai, Shanxi. Originally built in the Tang dynasty, it is the oldest surviving timber architecture in China.]]

The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including:

The Tiantai school, mainly founded by the efforts of master Zhiyi (538–597 CE) and based on the Lotus Sutra and the works of Zhiyi.
The Huayan (Avatamsaka Sutra) school, based on the works of Chinese masters such as Dushun (557–640), Zhiyan (602–668), and Fazang (643–712).
The Pure Land tradition, based on the veneration of Amitabha and the works of Buddhist monks such as Tanluan (476–542), Daochuo (562–645), and Shandao (613–681).
Chan Buddhism, based on the teachings of various Chan masters such as Bodhidharma, Dazu Huike (487–593), Sengcan (d. 606), Dayi Daoxin (580–651), and Daman Hongren (601–674).

During the Tang dynasty, the monk Xuanzang (602–664) journeyed to India and back and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a group of translators responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works. His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia.

The Tang era was a period of significant development for Buddhism in China. During this time, a sinicized Buddhism was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire, with many monasteries and temples. The religion was popular with all social classes and was influential on Chinese culture, Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets such as Wang Wei (701–761) and Bo Juyi (772–846). Artistic complexes from this period, such as the Longmen Grottoes, also attest to the artistic expression of Chinese Buddhism during this era. She also depicted herself as a bodhisattva.

The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, and their establishment of Zhenyan Buddhism (or Chinese Esoteric Buddhism) from 716 to 720, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. This Chinese form of Vajrayana Buddhism now became popular with the elites, and by the time of Emperor Daizong of Tang (), its influence among the upper classes was significant.

The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution (841–845) under Emperor Wuzong of Tang greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution was the Chinese state's need for taxes and wealth.

thumb|left|[[Pagoda of Fogong Temple at Ying County, Shanxi, constructed 1056–1195 during the Liao dynasty]]

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979), an era of political upheaval and civil war, negatively impacted the religion. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period.

The Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture. It was during this time that the Five Houses of Chan developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as the koan collections of the Linji school, such as the Blue Cliff Record (1125) and The Gateless Gate (1228).

Likewise, during this time, the works of Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) developed the meditation method of silent illumination. Both of these traditions of Chan practice were influential (and remain so) on East Asian Zen Buddhism (including Japanese Zen, Korean Seon, and Vietnamese Thiền).

The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) patronized Tibetan Buddhism; thus, during this period, there was a steady growth of this tradition in China. A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quite syncretic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of Hanshan Deqing, one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism. Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods. Chinese Buddhism suffered during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially the Taiping Rebellion (December 1850August 1864), which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels. This era also saw the arrival of Christian missionaries to China, a right which had been granted to the Western powers after the Opium Wars.

During the Republican period (1912–1949), there were efforts to reform and modernize Chinese Buddhism in response to the challenges of modernity. Buddhist organizations in the Republic of China period developed congregational features. Buddhist monks were attacked, disrobed, arrested, and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries, and art were systematically destroyed, and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public display of their religion.

During the normalization period (Boluan Fanzheng, 1977 to the early 1980s) led by Deng Xiaoping, a revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place. This was a period that saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples such as the Guoqing Temple and Guanghua Temple, as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks such as Zhenchan () and Mengcan (), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries, such as the United States, and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings. Monks were now required to obtain certificates from the authorities that permit them to reside in monasteries.

The Buddhist Association of China is the sole official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the country. It is directed by the United Front Work Department of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

Teaching and practice

thumb|Buddhist monastics and laypeople chanting sutras in the [[Buddha Tooth Relic Temple, Singapore]]

thumb|Buddha statues at the Mahavira Hall of [[Baoning Temple (Changsha)|Baoning Temple, Hunan, China]]

thumb|Volunteers of the [[Tzu Chi Foundation at a health screening event for foreign workers in Taipei]]

Doctrine and texts

Chinese Buddhism is a sinicized form of Mahayana Buddhism, which draws on the Chinese Buddhist canon ()

As such, Chinese Buddhism adheres to the classic Mahayana worldview, which includes a belief in many realms of existence, the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas, as well as many other kinds of divine beings and ghosts. Another example of a popular repentance ritual is the Yaoshi Bao Chan, which is devoted to the Buddha Yaoshi (Bhaiṣajyaguru).

Adhering to sets of ethical rules, such as the classic Buddhist five precepts, is another key part of Buddhist practice. Taking up the ethical precepts in a ceremony, along with taking refuge in the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), is a common way of entering the Buddhist path.

A major type of practice for Chinese Buddhist monastics is the performance of rituals aiming to help facilitate the nourishment and universal salvation () of all sentient beings in the six realms of saṃsāra. This type of ritual often involves tantric or esoteric practices and usually requires setting-up a dedicated ritual space, invoking the Buddhist pantheon, and the transference of merit from the performance of the ritual. A few examples of this type are the Yujia Yankou rite and the Shuilu Fahui ceremony.

Textual practices are also commonly practiced by monks and laypeople. These include printing, copying, propagating, and reciting Buddhist scriptures, studying Buddhist texts, and attending lectures.

Deities and temples

thumb|The [[Spring Temple Buddha, a colossal statue of Vairocana, in Henan, China]]

thumb|Statue of [[Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)|Samantabhadra at Mount Emei]]

thumb|Shrine to [[Cintāmaṇicakra within the Universal Wisdom Hall of the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum, Singapore]]

Various Mahayana Buddhist deities are venerated in Chinese Buddhism, most of which are Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Some of the key figures include: Devotion towards these images is a major part of Chinese Buddhism. As Chün-fang Yü writes, "people in China worship Buddhas and bodhisattvas in rituals, write poems and novels about them, praise them in songs and hymns, and tell stories and stage plays about them. And above all else, they worship the images of these holy beings."

According to Mario Poceski, Chinese Buddhist temples generally follow a traditional Chinese palace layout:

"[Buddhist temples] consist of a series of halls and courtyards that are arranged symmetrically around a central axis, which usually runs from north to south. The main hall is typically a large building that is centrally located along the main axis. In larger monasteries or temples, a number of ancillary halls also house the images of lesser Buddhist divinities, giving residents and visitors alike a wide choice of objects of worship and supplication."

Monasticism

thumb|Buddhist Monks at [[Yuantong Temple|Kunming Yuantong Temple]]

Buddhist monasticism is an important part of Chinese Buddhism. Both male and female monastics follow the Dharmaguptaka of Vinaya, which is known as the Four Part Vinaya () in China and has 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns.

There have been many different types of monasteries throughout Chinese Buddhist history. There are city monasteries, country monasteries, and monasteries deep in the mountains. Some monasteries may be large and rich, with thousands of monastics, while others are small with just a few monastics. The most prestigious monasteries have support from rich elites, and the smallest are usually in small villages.

Vegetarianism and veganism

thumb|The vegetarian dining hall at [[South Putuo Temple is well known throughout China]]

The Chinese word , meaning 'pure Buddhist vegan/vegetarian', is widely used in Chinese Buddhism.

Monastics are often required to be vegetarian or vegan, and other animal products are often banned in Buddhist temples and monasteries. Many historical biographies of lay Buddhists are available, which give a clear picture of their practices and role in Chinese Buddhism. In addition to these numerous biographies, there are accounts from Jesuit missionaries, such as Matteo Ricci, which provide extensive and revealing accounts of the degree Buddhism penetrated elite and popular culture in China. Chinese Buddhism developed mythologies and philosophies that incorporated and accommodated Chinese religions. For example, apocryphal texts tell of how Laozi was actually a disciple of the Buddha and how Confucius was a bodhisattva.

One such important element of Chinese Buddhism is that religious practices focus on one's ancestors, something that is shared in common with other traditional Chinese religions. This can include paying respect to them at various sites and at festivals such as the Qingming and Zhong Yuan festivals, as well as participating in services to pray for one's deceased ancestors.

The ritual burning of incense (shaoxiang, jingxiang) is another common religious practice in Buddhist spaces derived from traditional Chinese religion. During the Zhou dynasty, the Chinese believed that smoke resulting from the burning of sandalwood would act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits. The practice remains a common offering in Chinese Buddhism, which it shares with other Chinese religions.

Another common feature of Chinese religion is multiple religious belonging. As such, Chinese adherents may practice Buddhism alongside other Chinese religious practices without seeing this as conflicting. According to Mario Poceski:

<blockquote>Many or even most people who actually come to worship at Buddhist temples are not hardcore believers. A good number of them assume the kinds of fuzzy or hybrid religious identities that are typical of Chinese religiosity; among other things, that can mean that many of them also worship at Daoist temples or shrines associated with popular religion. This is one of the reasons why it is very difficult to arrive at reliable data about the number of Buddhists in China. and Christianity in general, and competed with these traditions, especially during the Tang dynasty. Chinese were also significantly influenced by them, as Mongolian Buddhism, influenced by Nestorian beliefs, This list is also found in traditional Japanese Buddhist histories, particularly that of Gyōnen (1240–1321).

Over time, some of these schools survived or were revived as living traditions, while others are now defunct historical traditions or were absorbed into other schools. These traditions are not rigid designations and there has always been much intermixing, and many temples and communities are influenced by many of these traditions (and also by local Chinese custom and traditional Chinese religions such as Taoism). Some traditions may also have numerous sub-schools or sects.

The various Chinese Buddhist traditions are not exclusivist, and are better seen as trends, emphases, schools of thought, or dharma-gates (), instead of as separate sects. Chün-fang Yü quotes a famous saying that describes the harmonious situation in Chinese Buddhism, "Tiantai and Huayan for doctrine, Chan and Pure Land for practice."

As Mario Poceski notes, Chinese Buddhism "lacks clear sectarian divisions of the kind we find in other Buddhist traditions".

The Chengshi school (historical), which focused on the study of the Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra ("The Treatise that Accomplishes Reality"; ).
The Kosa School (俱舍宗) (historical), based on the study of Abhidharma using the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu.
The Three Treatises school (; Chinese Madhyamaka), founded by Kumarajiva (344–413 CE).
The Pure Land school.
The Nirvana School (historical), based on the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra translated by Dharmarakṣa (c. 233–310); this was later absorbed into the Tiantai school.
The Chan (Dhyana) school, i.e. the Zen tradition attributed to the founder Bodhidharma, which focuses on sitting meditation () and developed numerous sub-schools such as Caodong and Linji.
The Zhenyan school (), i.e., Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, also called , , or .

Many of these traditions were later exported to other East Asian nations, such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

According to Sheng-yen, the Chan school is the most popular school in China today, and it is often eclectically combined with the other traditions of Pure Land, Tiantai, Huayan, Three Treatises, Consciousness-Only, Vinaya, and Esoteric.

There is also a modernist movement called Humanistic Buddhism, which emphasizes humanism, charity, and other humanitarian practices that help improve social conditions.

New religious movements

There are many sects and organizations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit (fo or fu: 'awakening', 'enlightenment') that are not recognized as legitimate Buddhism by the Chinese Buddhist Association and the Chinese government. These groups include:

Guanyin Buddhism () or Guanyin Church ()
True Buddha School
Buddhism of the Lord of Heaven of Infinite Thriving of the Mountain of Longevity ()
Wulian Jingang Dadao ('Great Way of the Innumerable Attendants of Awakening')
Hanmi Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Living Buddha Dechan Jueren

Holidays and festivals

thumb|Traditional Buddhist ceremony in [[Hangzhou, Zhejiang]]

thumb|[[Ghost Festival|Ghost festival floating lanterns, Hong Kong]]

thumb|[[Buddha's Birthday celebration of bathing baby Buddha statues]]

Chinese Buddhists celebrate numerous religious festivals and holidays, and these are the most widely attended and popular of the religion's events.

During religious festivals, Chinese people visit temples to take part in rituals, chanting, food, celebrations, parades, and to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers, and monetary donations. On such days, they may observe the moral precepts very strictly, as well as partake of a full day's vegetarian diet. Some of the most important holidays celebrated by Chinese Buddhists include Buddha's Birthday (on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month), Chinese New Year and the Lantern Festival (on the first and fifteenth days of the first lunar month), and the Ghost Festival (fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month).

List of holidays

The following holiday dates given are based on the Chinese calendar. For example, 8.4 refers to the eighth day of the fourth month of the Chinese calendar.

8.12Enlightenment Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
1.1Birthday of Maitreya Buddha
9.1Birthday of Śakra, Lord of the Devas
8.2Renunciation Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
15.2Mahāparinirvāṇa Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
19.2Birthday of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guan Yin)
21.2Birthday of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra
4.4Birthday of Bodhisattva Manjusri
8.4Buddha's Birthday
15.4Vesak
13.5Birthday of Bodhisattva Sangharama (Qie Lan)
3.6Birthday of Skanda (Wei Tuo)
19.6Enlightenment Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
13.7Birthday of Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta
15.7Ullambana Ghost Festival
24.7Birthday of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna
30.7Birthday of Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha
22.8Birthday of Dīpaṃkara Buddha
19.9Renunciation Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
30.9Birthday of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha (Medicine Buddha)
5.10Anniversary of the death of Bodhidharma
17.11Birthday of Amitabha Buddha

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

Han Yu. Sources of Chinese Tradition. c. 800.
Liebenthal, Walter. Was ist chinesischer Buddhismus Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Asiengesellschaft, 1952 Was ist chinesischer Buddhismus
.

Chinese Buddhism

History

The establishment of Buddhism in China

The development of a Chinese Buddhism

Teaching and practice

Doctrine and texts

Deities and temples

Monasticism

Vegetarianism and veganism

New religious movements

Holidays and festivals

List of holidays

See also

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

History

First Buddhist revival

Contemporary Chinese Buddhism