Carl Jung - WikiHQ

Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and psychologist who founded the school of analytical psychology. He was a prolific author of over twenty books, illustrator, correspondent, and academic, best known for his concept of archetypes. Widely considered one of the most influential psychologists of all time, His work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy, psychology, and religious studies.

Jung worked as a research scientist at the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital in Zurich, under Eugen Bleuler. He established himself as an influential mind, developing a friendship with Freud, founder of psychoanalysis, and conducting a lengthy correspondence regarding their joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw the younger Jung not only as the heir he had been seeking to take forward his "new science" of psychoanalysis, but as a means to legitimise his own work: Freud and other contemporary psychoanalysts were Jews facing rising antisemitism in Europe, while Jung was raised as Christian, although he did not strictly adhere to traditional Christian doctrine, seeing religion, including Christianity, as a powerful expression of the human psyche and its search for meaning. Freud secured Jung's appointment as president of Freud's newly founded International Psychoanalytical Association. Jung's research and personal vision, however, made it difficult to follow his older colleague's doctrine, and they parted ways. This division was painful for Jung and resulted in the establishment of Jung's analytical psychology as a comprehensive system separate from psychoanalysis.

Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the self out of each individual's conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the main task of human development. He created some of the best-known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the collective unconscious, the psychological complex, and extraversion and introversion. His treatment of American businessman and politician Rowland Hazard in 1926 with his conviction that alcoholics may recover if they have a "vital spiritual (or religious) experience" played a crucial role in the chain of events that led to the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous. Jung was an artist, craftsman, builder, and prolific writer. Many of his works were not published until after his death, and some remain unpublished.

Biography

Early life

Childhood

thumb|Birthplace in Kesswil

Carl Gustav Jung was born 26 July 1875 in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, as the first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung (1842–1896) and Emilie Jung (née Preiswerk; 1848–1923). His birth was preceded by two stillbirths and that of a son named Paul, born in 1873, who survived only a few days.

Paul Jung, Carl's father, was the youngest son of a noted German-Swiss physician and professor of medicine at Basel, Karl Gustav Jung (1794–1864). Karl Jung became Rector of Basel University and Master of the Swiss Lodge of Freemasons. It was rumoured that he was the illegitimate son of Goethe, but this is likely a legend. Paul Jung was a rural pastor in the Swiss Reformed Church.Jung considered his father reliable, but weak and powerless.

Emilie Preiswerk, Carl's mother, grew up in a large family whose Swiss roots went back five centuries. She was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk (1799–1871),

In contrast to his father, Carl saw his mother as unreliable and inconsistent, The relocation brought Emilie closer to contact with her family and lifted her melancholy. he had two personalities—a modern Swiss citizen and a personality more suited to the 18th century. He later reflected that this ceremonial act brought him a feeling of inner peace and security. Years later, he discovered similarities between his personal experience and the practices associated with totems in Indigenous cultures, such as the collection of soul-stones near Arlesheim or the tjurungas of Australia. He concluded that his intuitive ceremonial act was an unconscious ritual, which he had practiced in a way that was strikingly similar to those in distant locations which he, as a young boy, knew nothing about.

At the age of 12, shortly before the end of his first year at the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Basel, Jung was pushed to the ground by another boy and hit his head, momentarily losing consciousness (he later recognised the incident was indirectly his fault). After studying philosophy in his teens, Jung rejected the path of religious traditionalism and decided to pursue psychiatry and medicine.

In 1895, Jung began to study medicine at the University of Basel on a grant. thumb|upright|Jung outside Burghölzli in 1910Despite showing promise in medicine and almost choosing to specialise in surgery, Jung, to the dismay of his family and professors, decided to become a psychiatrist after reading a Richard von Krafft-Ebing's Textbook of Psychiatry. In 1905, Jung was appointed as a permanent 'senior' doctor at Burghölzli and became a lecturer Privatdozent in the medical faculty of Zurich University. In 1909, Jung left Burghölzli and began a private practice in his home in Küsnacht.

Emma Jung, whose education had been limited, showed considerable ability and interest in her husband's research. She threw herself into psychological studies and acted as his assistant at Burghölzli. She eventually became a noted psychoanalyst in her own right and lectured at the Jungian Institute in Zürich.

During his marriage, Jung engaged in at least one extramarital relationship: with his patient and, later, fellow psychoanalyst Sabina Spielrein. A continuing affair with Toni Wolff, starting in 1910,. Jung confided in Freud that he had "'polygamous components' in himself" and that The pre-requisite of a good marriage, it seems to me, is the licence to be unfaithful. The same year, he published Diagnostic Association Studies, a copy of which he later sent to Freud, who had already purchased a copy. In 1908, Jung became an editor of the newly founded Yearbook for Psychoanalytical and Psychopathological Research.

In the late summer of 1909, Jung sailed with Freud and Hungarian psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi to the United States. From 7–11 September, they took part in the twentieth-anniversary celebration of the founding of Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, the Vicennial Conference on Psychology and Pedagogy. Freud was the featured lecturer, and Jung spoke and received an honorary degree. The conference was planned by the psychologist G. Stanley Hall and included 27 distinguished psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists. It represented a watershed in the acceptance of psychoanalysis in North America. This forged welcome links between Jung and influential Americans. Jung returned to the United States the next year for a brief visit.

In 1910, Freud proposed Jung, "his adopted eldest son, his crown prince, and successor," for the position of lifetime President of the newly formed International Psychoanalytical Association. However, after forceful objections from his Viennese colleagues, it was agreed Jung would be elected to serve a two-year term of office.

Divergence and break

While Jung worked on his Psychology of the Unconscious: a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, tensions manifested between him and Freud because of various disagreements, including those concerning the nature of libido. Jung the importance of sexual development and focused on the collective unconscious: the part of the unconscious that contains memories and ideas that Jung believed were inherited from ancestors. While he did think that the libido was an important source of personal growth, unlike Freud, Jung did not think that the libido alone was responsible for the formation of the core personality.

In 1912, these tensions came to a peak because Jung felt severely slighted after Freud visited his colleague Ludwig Binswanger in Kreuzlingen without paying him a visit in nearby Zurich, an incident Jung referred to as "the Kreuzlingen gesture". Shortly thereafter, Jung again traveled to the US and gave the Fordham University lectures, a six-week series, which were published later in the year as Psychology of the Unconscious, and subsequently republished as Symbols of Transformation. While they contain remarks on Jung's dissenting view on the libido, they represent largely a "psychoanalytical Jung" and not the theory of analytical psychology, for which he became famous in the following decades. Nonetheless, it was their publication which, Jung declared, "cost me my friendship with Freud". Jung saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete, unnecessarily negative, and inelastic. According to Jung, Freud conceived the unconscious solely as a repository of repressed emotions and desires. Jung's observations overlap to an extent with Freud's model of the unconscious, what Jung called the "personal unconscious", but his hypothesis is more about a process than a static model, and he also proposed the existence of a second, overarching form of the unconscious beyond the personal, that he named the psychoid—a term borrowed from neo-vitalist philosopher and embryologist Hans Driesch (1867–1941)—but with a somewhat altered meaning. The collective unconscious is not so much a 'geographical location', but a deduction from the alleged ubiquity of archetypes over space and time.

In November 1912, Jung and Freud met in Munich for a meeting among prominent colleagues to discuss psychoanalytical journals. At a talk about a new psychoanalytic essay on Amenhotep IV, Jung expressed his views on how it related to actual conflicts in the psychoanalytic movement. While Jung spoke, Freud suddenly fainted, and Jung carried him to a couch. Jung agreed to comply with this arrangement. They met personally for the last time in September 1913 at the Fourth International Psychoanalytical Congress in Munich. Jung gave a talk on psychological types, the introvert and extraverted types, in analytical psychology.

It was the publication of Jung's book The Psychology of the Unconscious in 1912 that led to the final break with Freud. The letters they exchanged at the time show Freud's refusal to consider Jung's ideas. This rejection caused what Jung described in his posthumously published autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1962) as a "resounding censure". However, the exact reasons for this final break between the two is debated between Jungians and Freudians to this day.

Interest in William James

During his first trip to the United States with Freud, Jung was introduced to the elder philosopher and psychologist William James, known as the "Father of American psychology," whose ideas Jung would incorporate into his own work. Jung connected with James around their mutual interests in mysticism, spiritualism and psychical phenomena. James wrote to a friend after the conference stating Jung "left a favorable impression," while "his views of Freud were mixed." James died about eleven months later.

The ideas of both Jung and James, on topics including hopelessness, self-surrender, and spiritual experiences, were influential in the development and founding of the international altruistic, self-help movement Alcoholics Anonymous on 10 June 1935, in Akron, Ohio, a quarter of a century after James' death and in Jung's sixtieth year.

Midlife isolation

After the break between Jung and Freud in 1913, Jung went through a pivotal psychological transformation, and, after the Munich congress, he was on the verge of a psychosis.

As well as his eventual break from Freud, Jung's publication of Psychology of the Unconscious in 1913 resulted in many of Jung's friends and colleagues dropping away and declaring him a mystic. considering it a "single integral whole", even though some of these original journals have a brown cover. The material Jung wrote was subjected to several edits, hand-written and typed, including another, "second layer" of text, his continual psychological interpretations during the process of editing. Around 1915, Jung commissioned a large red leather-bound book, and began to transcribe his notes and paint, working intermittently for sixteen years.

Jung left no posthumous instructions about the final disposition of what he called the Liber Novus or Red Book. Sonu Shamdasani, a historian of psychology from London, tried for three years to persuade Jung's resistant heirs to have it published. Ulrich Hoerni, Jung's grandson who manages the Jung archives, decided to publish it when the necessary additional funds were raised through the Philemon Foundation. According to them, "During the period in which he worked on this book, Jung developed his principal theories of archetypes, collective unconscious, and the process of individuation." Two-thirds of the pages bear Jung's illuminations and illustrations to the text. and soon made commandant of an internment camp for British officers and soldiers.

In 1938, Jung was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Oxford.

In 1946, Jung agreed to become the first Honorary President of the newly formed Society of Analytical Psychology in London, having previously approved its training programme devised by Michael Fordham.

United States 1909–1912, 1924–1925, & 1936–1937

During the period of Jung's collaboration with Freud, both visited the US in 1909 to lecture at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, Jung made another trip to America in 1936, receiving an honorary degree at Harvard, and giving lectures in New York and New England for his growing group of American followers. He returned in 1937 to deliver the Terry Lectures at Yale University, later published as Psychology and Religion.

East Africa

In October 1925, Jung embarked on his most ambitious expedition, the "Bugishu Psychological Expedition" to East Africa. He was accompanied by his English friend, "Peter" Baynes, and an American associate, George Beckwith. On the voyage to Africa, they became acquainted with an English woman named Ruth Bailey, who joined their safari a few weeks later. The group traveled through Kenya and Uganda to the slopes of Mount Elgon, where Jung hoped to increase his understanding of "primitive psychology" through conversations with the culturally isolated residents of that area. Later, he concluded that the major insights he had gleaned had to do with himself and the European psychology in which he had been raised. One of Jung's most famous proposed constructs is kinship libido. Jung defined this as an instinctive feeling of belonging to a particular group or family and believed it was vital to the human experience, and used this as an endogamous aspect of the libido and what lies within the family. This is similar to a Bantu term called Ubuntu that emphasizes humanity and almost the same meaning as kinship libido, which is, "I am because you are."

India

thumb|upright|Jung in about 1935

During his 1937–1938 journey to India, Jung developed an interest in Indian philosophy and religious traditions, particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, and Advaita Vedanta, which influenced his later reflections on symbolism, the unconscious, and the concept of the Self. Jung compared Indian spiritual traditions to modern Western culture, which he described as more focused on logic and material things. He wrote that Eastern traditions preserved psychological and symbolic modes of understanding that the West had partly lost, and he expressed admiration for the philosophical depth of Indian metaphysics, yoga, and contemplative practices. At the same time, he maintained that these traditions emerged from a different cultural and psychological context, and he cautioned that their direct adoption by Westerners could be problematic without any prior psychological development through which he termed as individuation. During this visit, he declined an opportunity to meet the Advaita Vedanta sage Ramana Maharshi, for what he later explained was that he preferred to pursue insight through his own psychological work rather than through the authority of spiritual teachers. Jung discussed these thoughts in his several later writings, including Psychology and the East, The Holy Men of India, and Memories, Dreams, Reflections, where he argued that dialogue between Eastern spirituality and Western psychology could be fruitful, but that the two traditions reflected different historical paths toward understanding the human psyche and spiritual experience. He visited Vedagiriswarar Temple where he had a conversation with a local expert about the symbols and sculptures on the gopuram of this temple. He later wrote about this conversation in his book Aion. Jung became ill on this trip, suffering delirium in a Calcutta hospital. After 1938, his travels were confined to Europe.

Later life and death

thumb|upright|Jung in a 1955 interview

Jung became a full professor of medical psychology at the University of Basel in 1943 but resigned after a heart attack the next year to lead a more private life.

In 1945, he began corresponding with an English Roman Catholic priest, Father Victor White, who became a close friend, regularly visiting the Jungs at the Bollingen estate. In 1961, he wrote his last work, a contribution to Man and His Symbols entitled "Approaching the Unconscious" (published posthumously in 1964).

Awards

Among his principal distinctions are honorary doctorates from:

Clark University 1909
Fordham University 1912
Harvard University 1936
University of Allahabad 1937
University of Benares 1937
University of Calcutta 1938
University of Oxford 1938
University of Geneva 1945
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich 1955 on his 80th birthday

In addition, he was:

given a Literature prize from the city of Zurich, 1932
made Titular Professor of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, ETH 1935
appointed Honorary Member of the Royal Society of Medicine 1939
given a Festschrift at Eranos 1945
appointed President of the Society of Analytical Psychology, London, 1946
given a Festschrift by students and friends in 1955
named Honorary citizen of Kűsnacht 1960, on his 85th birthday

Jung had, through his marriage, the economic security to pursue interests in other intellectual topics of the moment. His early celebrity as a research scientist through the Word Association Test led to the start of prolific correspondence and worldwide travel. It opened academic as well as social avenues, supported by his explorations into anthropology, quantum physics, vitalism, Eastern and Western philosophy. He delved into epistemology, alchemy, astrology, and sociology, as well as literature and the arts. Jung's interest in philosophy and spiritual subjects led many to label him a mystic, although he preferred to be seen as a man of science. Jung, unlike Freud, was deeply knowledgeable about philosophical concepts and sought links between epistemology and emergent theories of psychology.

Key concepts

right|thumb|C. G. Jung Institute, [[Küsnacht, Switzerland]]

Within the field of analytical psychology, a brief survey of major concepts developed by Jung includes (alphabetical):

Anima and animus—(archetype) the contrasexual aspect of a person's psyche. In a woman's psyche, her inner personal masculine is conceived as a complex and an archetypal image; in a man's psyche, his inner personal feminine is conceived both as a complex and an archetypal image.
Archetype—a concept "borrowed" from anthropology to denote supposedly universal and recurring mental images or themes. Jung's descriptions of archetypes varied over time.
Archetypal images—universal symbols that mediate opposites in the psyche, often found in religious art, mythology, and fairy tales across cultures.
Collective unconscious—aspects of unconsciousness experienced by all people in different cultures.
Complex—the repressed organisation of images and experiences that governs perception and behaviour.
Extraversion and introversion—personality traits of degrees of openness or reserve contributing to psychological type.
Individuation—the process of fulfilment of each individual "which negates neither the conscious unconscious position but does justice to them both".
Psychological Types—a framework for consciously orienting psychotherapists to patients by raising particular modes of personality to consciousness and differentiation between analyst and patient.
Shadow—(archetype) the repressed, therefore unknown, aspects of the personality, including those often considered to be negative.
Self—(archetype) the central overarching concept governing the individuation process, as symbolized by mandalas, the union of male and female, totality, and unity. Jung viewed it as the psyche's central archetype.
Synchronicity—an acausal principle as a basis for the apparently random concurrence of phenomena.

Collective unconscious

Since the establishment of psychoanalytic theory, the notion and meaning of individuals having a unconscious, popularised by Freud, has come to be commonly accepted. An individual's personal unconscious is made up of thoughts and emotions that have, at some time, been experienced or held in mind but which have been repressed or forgotten. By contrast, the collective unconscious is neither acquired by activities within an individual's life nor is it a container of things that are thoughts, memories or ideas which are capable of being conscious during one's life. In this sense, the contents of it were never naturally "known" through physical or cognitive experience and then forgotten.

The collective unconscious consists of universal heritable elements common to all humans, distinct from other species. However, this does not necessarily imply a genetic cause, but rather encapsulates influences of evolutionary biology, the history of civilization, ethnology, brain and nervous system development, and general psychological development. Considering its composition in practical physiological and psychological terms, "it consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents."

Jung argues that the shadow plays a distinctive role in balancing one's overall psyche, the counter-balancing to consciousness—"where there is light, there must also be shadow". In order to truly grow as an individual, Jung believed that both the persona and shadow should be balanced.

In Psychological Types, Jung defined the primary attitudinal types (introvert and extrovert), comparing them to the ancient archetypes: Apollo and Dionysus. For the extravert, the libido flows outwards, and the person has an interest, relationship and dependence on events, people and things. While contemporary models, such as the Big Five or psychometric adaptations such as Hans Eysenck's PEN model, often define these terms through social behavioural traits (such as shyness, gregariousness, sociability and impulsivity), Jung defined them as 'directional orientations of libido.' Modern theories often stay true to behaviourist means of describing such a trait (sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness etc.), whereas Jungian introversion and extraversion are expressed as a perspective: introverts interpret the world subjectively, whereas extraverts interpret the world objectively.

Jung also posited different functions of consciousness: two perceiving/non-rational functions: sensation and intuition; and two judging/rational functions: thinking and feeling. Jung applied the term persona because, in Latin, it means both personality and the masks worn by Roman actors of the classical period, expressive of the individual roles played. The persona, he argues, is a mask for the "collective psyche", a mask that 'pretends' individuality so that both self and others believe in that identity, even if it is really no more than a well-played role through which the collective psyche is expressed. It has also been referred to as the social archetype or the conformity archetype. But he also makes it quite explicit that it is, in substance, a character mask in the classical sense known to theatre, with its double function: both intended to make a certain impression on others and to hide (part of) the true nature of the individual, which he calls the 'shadow'. While Jung’s conception of human psychology is grounded in Darwinian evolutionary theory, it is important to note that his evolutionary thought had a distinctively German quality to it. This is because the idiosyncratic reception of Darwin in late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Germany resulted in the integration of Darwin's ideas with German embryological and developmental traditions formulated by the Naturphilosophen and theorists such as Ernst Haeckel. These traditions formed the intellectual background of Jung’s evolutionary thought.

The result was that Jung's evolutionary conception of mind focused on embryology and development. From this perspective, the emergence of consciousness both in ontogeny (development) and phylogeny (evolution) was built upon much more archaic, affect-based subcortical brain systems. This developmental approach to evolution underpinned his "archaeological" conception of the human psyche, consisting of different evolutionary layers, from the deeply archaic to the more evolutionarily recent. Those more archaic structures in the brain, Jung believed, were the basis of the "collective unconscious"—an aspect of human psychology shared by all members of the species Homo sapiens. Jung also developed the notion of different evolutionary layers in the psyche in his discussion of fossil hominins such as Pithecanthropus (Homo erectus). As he writes:

Jung’s notion of different evolutionary layers in the human mind has been compared with the work of neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp, particularly as outlined in his book The Archaeology of Mind: Neuroevolutionary Origins of Human Emotions.

Spirituality

Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals. The main task for people, he believed, is to discover and fulfill their deep, innate potential. Based on his study of Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism, Taoism, and other traditions, Jung believed this journey of transformation, which he called individuation, is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the self and at the same time to meet the Divine. Unlike Freud's atheistic worldview, Jung's pantheism may have led him to believe that spiritual experience was essential to well-being, as he specifically identifies individual human life with the universe as a whole.

In 1959, Jung was asked by the host, John Freeman, on the BBC interview program Face to Face whether he believed in God, to which Jung answered, "I do not need to believe. I know." Jung's ideas on religion counterbalance Freudian skepticism. Jung's idea of religion as a practical road to individuation is still treated in modern textbooks on the psychology of religion, though his ideas have been criticized.

Jung recommended spirituality as a cure for alcoholism, and is considered to have had an indirect role in establishing Alcoholics Anonymous. Jung treated an American patient named Rowland Hazard III who had chronic alcoholism. After working with the patient for some time and achieving no significant progress, Jung told the man that his alcoholic condition was near hopeless, save only the possibility of a spiritual experience. Jung noted that, occasionally, such experiences had been known to reform alcoholics when all other options had failed. Hazard took Jung's advice seriously and sought a personal, spiritual experience. He returned to the United States and joined a Christian evangelical movement known as the Oxford Group. He told other alcoholics what Jung had told him about the importance of a spiritual experience. One of the alcoholics he brought into the Oxford Group was Ebby Thacher, a long-time friend and drinking buddy of William Griffith Wilson, later co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous. Thacher told Wilson about the Oxford Group, and through them, Wilson became aware of Hazard's experience with Jung. The influence of Jung thus indirectly found its way into the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, the original twelve-step program.

The above claims are documented in the letters of Jung and Wilson. Although some historians dispute the detail, Jung discussed an Oxford Group member, who may have been the same person, in talks around 1940. The remarks were distributed privately in transcript form, from shorthand taken by an attender (Jung reportedly approved the transcript), and later recorded in his Collected Works, "For instance, when a member of the Oxford Group comes to me in order to get treatment, I say, 'You are in the Oxford Group; so long as you are there, you settle your affair with the Oxford Group. I can't do it better than Jesus. Jung goes on to state he has seen similar cures among Roman Catholics. The 12-step program of Alcoholics Anonymous has a psychological backdrop involving the human ego and the dichotomy between the conscious and unconscious mind.

Inquiries into the paranormal

Jung had an apparent interest in the paranormal and occult. For decades, he attended seances and claimed to have witnessed "parapsychic phenomena". Initially, he attributed these to psychological causes, even delivering a 1919 lecture in England for the Society for Psychical Research on "The Psychological Foundations for the belief in spirits". However, he began to "doubt whether an exclusively psychological approach can do justice to the phenomena in question" This is the idea that certain coincidences manifest in the world, have exceptionally intense meaning to observers. Such coincidences have a great effect on the observer from multiple cumulative aspects: from the immediate personal relevance of the coincidence to the observer, from the peculiarities of (the nature of, the character, novelty, curiosity of) any such coincidence; from the sheer improbability of the coincidence, having no apparent causal link (hence Jung's essay subtitle "An Acausal Connecting Principle"). Despite his own experiments failing to confirm the phenomenon he held on to the idea as an explanation for apparent ESP. In addition, he proposed it as a functional explanation for how the I-Ching worked. However, he was never clear about how synchronicity worked.

Interpretation of quantum mechanics

Jung influenced one philosophical interpretation (not the science) of quantum physics with the concept of synchronicity regarding some events as non-causal. That idea influenced the physicist Wolfgang Pauli (with whom, via a letter correspondence, Jung developed the notion of unus mundus in connection with the idea of nonlocality) and some other physicists.

Alchemy

thumb|The mythic alchemical philosopher's stone as pictured in [[Atalanta Fugiens Emblem 21]]

Jung's acquaintance with alchemy came between 1928 and 1930 when he was introduced to a manuscript of The Secret of the Golden Flower, translated by Richard Wilhelm. The work and writings of Jung from the 1930s onwards shifted to a focus on the psychological significance of alchemy.

In 1944, Jung published Psychology and Alchemy, in which he analyzed the alchemical symbols and came to the conclusion that there is a direct relationship between them and the psychoanalytical process. He argued that the alchemical process was the transformation of the impure soul (lead) to perfected soul (gold), and a metaphor for the individuation process.

Therapy

After his period of psychological transformation and his later discovery of alchemy, Jung saw analysis as more of a tool for personal growth than treatment for certain mental disorders. and practiced by Tina Keller-Jenny and other analysts. It remained largely unknown until the 1950s when it was rediscovered by Marian Chace and therapist Mary Whitehouse. Whitehouse, after studying with Martha Graham and Mary Wigman, became a dancer and teacher of modern dance, and, along with Swiss dancer Trudi Schoop, is considered one of the founders of dance/movement therapy in the U.S.

Political views

The state

Jung stressed the importance of individual rights in a person's relation to the state and society. He saw that the state was treated as "a quasi-animate personality from whom everything is expected" but that this personality was "only camouflage for those individuals who know how to manipulate it". He referred to the state as a form of slavery. He also thought that the state "swallowed up [people's] religious forces",

Relationship to Nazism and antisemitism

Various statements made by Jung in the 1930s have been cited as evidence of both contempt and sympathy for Nazism.

In 1933, after the Nazis gained power in Germany, Jung became the president of the new International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy (Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie); the professional body aimed to have affiliated organizations in different countries. The German affiliated organization was the Deutsche Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie, led by Matthias Göring, an Adlerian psychotherapist, and a cousin of the prominent Nazi Hermann Göring, excluded Jews. In 1933, the society's journal, Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie, published a statement endorsing Nazi positions, Jung's response to this was twofold.

In "The State of Psychotherapy Today", published in 1934 in the Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie, Jung wrote: "The Aryan unconscious has a greater potential than the Jewish unconscious" and "The Jew, who is something of a nomad, has never yet created a cultural form of his own and as far as we can see never will". Andrew Samuels argues that his remarks on the "Aryan unconscious" and the "corrosive character" of Freud's "Jewish gospel" demonstrate a form of antisemitism "fundamental to the structure of Jung's thought" but also argues that there is a "pioneering nature of Jung's contributions" and that "his intuition of the importance of exploring difference remains intact."

In 1934, in a circular for the society, Jung also drew attention to its constitution, which permitted individual doctors to join directly rather than through one of the national affiliated societies. This meant that German Jewish doctors could maintain their professional status as individual members of the international body, even though they were excluded from the German affiliate, as well as from other German medical societies operating under the Nazis.

On the other hand, also in 1934, Jung wrote in a Swiss publication, the Neue Zürcher Zeitung, that he experienced "great surprise and disappointment" when the Zentralblatt associated his name with the pro-Nazi statement. He did not end his relationship with the Zentralblatt at this time, but he did arrange the appointment of a new managing editor, Carl Alfred Meier of Switzerland. For the next few years, the Zentralblatt under Jung and Meier maintained a position distinct from that of the Nazis in that it continued to acknowledge the contributions of Jewish doctors to psychotherapy.

Jung's interest in European mythology and folk psychology was shared by the Nazis. He would later say, during a lengthy interview with H. R. Knickerbocker in October 1938:Jung is also known to have possessed an interest in the Jewish mystic tradition of Kabbalah.

Views on homosexuality

Jung addressed homosexuality in his published writings, in one comment specifying that homosexuality should not be a concern of legal authorities nor be considered a crime. He also stated that homosexuality does not reduce the value of a person as a member of society. Jung also said that homosexuality is a result of psychological immaturity ("nurture"), but only if one's sexuality is not an aspect of their constitutional characteristics ("nature").

Psychedelics

Jung's theories are considered to be a useful therapeutic framework for the analysis of unconscious phenomena that become manifest in the acute psychedelic state. This view is based on correspondence Jung had with researchers involved in psychedelic research in the 1950s, as well as more recent neuroimaging research where subjects who are administered psychedelic compounds seem to have archetypal religious experiences of "unity" and "ego dissolution" associated with reduced activity in the default mode network.

This research has led to a re-evaluation of Jung's work, particularly the visions detailed in The Red Book, in the context of contemporary psychedelic, evolutionary, and developmental neuroscience. For example, in a chapter entitled "Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness", in the 2020 volume Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions, Volume 4, it is argued Jung was a pioneer who explored uncharted "cognitive domains" that are alien to Western modes of thought. While such domains of experience are not part of mainstream Western culture and thought, they are central to various Indigenous cultures that use psychedelics such as Iboga and Ayahuasca during rituals to alter consciousness. The author writes: "Jung seems to have been dealing with modes of consciousness alien to mainstream Western thought, exploring the terrain of uncharted cognitive domains. I argue that science is beginning to catch up with Jung who was a pioneer whose insights contribute a great deal to our emerging understanding of human consciousness."

An account of Jung and psychedelics, as well as the importance of Jungian psychology to psychedelic-assisted therapies, is outlined in Scott Hill's 2013 book Confrontation with the Unconscious: Jungian Depth Psychology and Psychedelic Experience. A 2021 article discusses Jung's attitude towards psychedelics, as well as the applicability of his ideas to current research. The list however focused on U.S. journals and was made by the psychology department of Arkansas State University.

Although psychoanalysis is still studied in the humanities, a 2008 study in The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association found that psychology departments and textbooks treat it as "desiccated and dead". Similarly, Alan Stone noted, "As academic psychology becomes more 'scientific' and psychiatry more biological, psychoanalysis is being brushed aside."

Personality Tests

Jung has influenced management theory because managers and executives create an appropriate "management persona" (a corporate mask) and a persuasive identity, and they have to evaluate what sort of people the workers are, to manage them (for example, using personality tests and peer reviews).

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a psychometric instrument mostly popular with non-psychologists, as well as the concepts of socionics, were developed from Jung's model of psychological types. The MBTI is considered pseudoscience and is not widely accepted by researchers in the field of psychology.

Alcoholics Anonymous

Jung is considered a "godparent" of the altruistic, mutual self-help movement, Alcoholics Anonymous. Jung told Rhode Island businessman and politician Rowland Hazard III, who had come under his care for the first time in 1926, that the only chance he might have to recover was through a "spiritual or religious experience" or "genuine conversion," which Hazard later had, through the Oxford Group and the Emmanuel Movement, and, according to some sources, never drank again.

Hazard, in turn, helped Ebby Thatcher, another alcoholic, get sober, with help from the Oxford Group. Thatcher brought Jung's ideas to a third alcoholic, Bill W., who consequently co-founded Alcoholics Anonymous with Dr. Bob. Years later, Bill W. corresponded with Jung, in 1961, thanking him for helping to inspire the organization. Of Hazard, the alcoholic who came under his care, Jung wrote: "His craving for alcohol was the equivalent, on a low level, of the spiritual thirst of our being for wholeness, expressed in medieval language: the union with God."

Religion and spirituality

Jung saw the human psyche as "by nature religious" and made this idea a principal focus of his explorations. His influence on the "psychologization of religion", spirituality, and the New Age movement has been immense.

In popular culture

Literature

Books in which Jung is a character in the narrative

Laurens van der Post was an Afrikaner author who claimed to have had a 16-year friendship with Jung, from which books and a film were created about Jung. The accuracy of van der Post's claims about his relationship to Jung has been questioned.
In his novel The World is Made of Glass (1983), Morris West gives a fictional account of one of Jung's cases, placing the events in 1913. According to the author's note, the novel is "based upon a case recorded, very briefly, by Carl Gustav Jung in his autobiographical work Memories, Dreams, Reflections".
Pilgrim, a supernatural novel in which Jung is a character.
Possessing the Secret of Joy, a novel in which Jung is a therapist character.
The Interpretation of Murder, a novel focused on Sigmund Freud in which he solves a murder in New York City.

Fiction that references Jung's theories

Hermann Hesse, author of works such as Siddhartha and Steppenwolf, was treated by Joseph Lang, a student of Jung. For Hesse this began a long preoccupation with psychoanalysis, through which he came to know Jung personally.
The Canadian novelist Robertson Davies made Jungian analysis a central part of his 1970 novel The Manticore. He stated in a letter, "There have been other books which describe Freudian analyses, but I know of no other that describes a Jungian analysis" adding "I was deeply afraid that I would put my foot in it, for I have never undergone one of those barnacle-scraping experiences, and knew of it only through reading. So, I was greatly pleased when some of my Jungian friends in Zurich liked it very much."
The psychological novel E.E. written by Olga Tokarczuk draws from Jung's doctoral dissertation On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena. Jung is not a character in this story, but Jung's views on the occult are extensively cited.

Art

thumb|Original statue of Jung in [[Mathew Street, Liverpool, a half-body on a plinth captioned "Liverpool is the pool of life"]]

The visionary Swiss painter Peter Birkhäuser was treated by a student of Jung, Marie-Louise von Franz, and corresponded with Jung about the translation of dream symbolism into works of art.
American abstract expressionist Jackson Pollock underwent Jungian psychotherapy in 1939 with Joseph Henderson. Henderson engaged Pollock through his art, having him make drawings, which led to the appearance of many Jungian concepts in his paintings.
Contrary to some sources, Jung did not visit Liverpool but recorded a dream in which he did, and of which he wrote, "Liverpool is the pool of life, it makes to live." A plaster statue of Jung was erected in Mathew Street in 1987 that was vandalised and replaced by a more durable version in 1993.

Music

Musician David Bowie described himself as Jungian in his relationship to dreams and the unconscious.
British rock band the Police released an album titled Synchronicity in 1983.
The American rock band Tool was influenced by Jungian concepts in its album Ænima, the title a play on the concepts of anima and animus. In the song "Forty Six & 2", the singer seeks to become a more evolved self by exploring and overcoming his Shadow.
Jung's texts influenced Argentinian musician Luis Alberto Spinetta in his 1975 conceptual album Durazno sangrando, specifically the songs "Encadenado al ánima" and "En una lejana playa del ánimus", which deal with anima and animus.
Jung appeared on the front cover of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.
He is referenced in The Streets song the "Irony of it All" from the album Original Pirate Material.
The South Korean band BTS's 2019 album Map of the Soul: Persona is based on Jung's Map of the Soul, which gives the basic principles of Jung's analytical psychology. It includes an intro song titled "Persona" rapped by group leader RM, who asks, "who am I?", and is confronted with various versions of himself with the words "persona", "shadow", and "ego", referring to Jung's theories. On 21 February 2020, the band released Map of the Soul: 7, which specifically focuses on Jung's "shadow" and "ego" theories. As part of the first phase of the band's comeback, "Interlude: Shadow", rapped by Suga and released on 10 January, addresses the shadows and the darkness that go hand-in-hand with the light and attention shone on celebrities. The next comeback trailer, "Outro: Ego", performed by J-Hope, ends with his declaration of self and ego as he appears within a colourful city "in which the artist's current image is projected".
In 2019, Italian rapper Marracash released the album Persona, which features many Jungian themes.
Jung appeared on the cover art of the 2008 single "Metanoia" by American psychedelic rock band MGMT.
Composer John Zorn released his composition Liber Novus inspired by Jung's Red Book in 2010 on the Tzadik CD Dictée/Liber Novus.
English rock musician Peter Gabriel's song The Rhythm of the Heat from his 1982 album, is directly based on Carl Jung's experiences during his time in Africa. The working title for the song was "Jung in Africa".
Peruvian musician Daniela Lalita has cited Jung's archetype of the "Great Mother" as a major influence on her works Madre and Trececerotres. In Peru, this manifests in the worship of Pachamama, the earth and fertility goddess, who symbolizes the close connection to nature and reflects the collective unconscious of Andean culture.

Theatre, film, television, and radio

Films in which Jung is a character in the narrative

2002 saw the release of an Italian film about Jung and Spielrein, The Soul Keeper (Prendimi l'Anima) directed by Roberto Faenza. It used English dialogue and English actors, but was never formally released in the United States. Emilia Fox played Sabina Spielrein and Iain Glen was Carl Gustav Jung.
A Dangerous Method, a 2011 film directed by David Cronenberg, is a fictional dramatisation of the lives of Freud, Jung, and Sabina Spielrein between 1904 and 1913. Spielrein is the Russian woman who became Jung's lover and student and, later, an analyst herself. Michael Fassbender plays Carl Jung. The film is based on the stage play The Talking Cure by Christopher Hampton, which was in turn based on the 1993 non-fiction book by John Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein.
In the online animated series, Super Science Friends, Jung, voiced by Tom Park, is featured as one of the recurrent antagonists against Sigmund Freud.
Soul, a 2020 Pixar film written by Pete Docter, Mike Jones and Kemp Powers, includes brief appearances of Jung as an ethereal cartoon character, "Soul Carl Jung".
Jeff Lillico portrays Jung in episode 13 of season 15 "Murdoch on the Couch" (10 January 2022) of the Canadian television period detective series Murdoch Mysteries.

Documentaries

The BBC interviewed Jung for Face to Face with John Freeman at Jung's home in Zurich in 1959. It was followed by a book of the same title.
Matter of Heart (1986) is a documentary about Jung featuring interviews with those who knew him and archival footage.
On 2 December 2004, BBC Radio 4's In Our Time broadcast a program on "the mind and theories" of Jung.

Film, stage, and television influenced by Jung's ideas

Federico Fellini brought to the screen exuberant imagery shaped by his encounter with Jung's ideas, especially Jungian dream interpretation. Fellini preferred Jung to Freud because Jungian analysis defined the dream not as a symptom of a disease that required a cure but rather as a link to archetypal images shared by all of humanity.
Stanley Kubrick's 1987 film Full Metal Jacket has an underlying theme about the duality of man. In one scene, a colonel asks a soldier, "You write 'Born to Kill' on your helmet and you wear a peace button. What's that supposed to be, some kind of sick joke?" The soldier replies, "I think I was trying to suggest something about the duality of man, sir...the Jungian thing, sir." (The colonel in this scene is played by the brother of famed Jungian psychologist Marion Woodman.)
In the 1994 Frasier episode, "Frasier Crane's Day Off", Niles fills in for his brother, declaring: "Although I feel perfectly qualified to fill Frasier's radio shoes, I should warn you that while Frasier is a Freudian, I am a Jungian. So there'll be no blaming Mother today."
Robert Eggers's 2019 psychological thriller The Lighthouse has elements strongly influenced by Jung's work, with Eggers hoping that "it's a movie where both Jung and Freud would be furiously eating their popcorn".

Video games

The Persona series of games is heavily based on Jung's theories, representing the shadow, the persona, and archetype.
The Nights into Dreams series of games is heavily based on Jung's theories.
Jungian concepts are present in the Xeno series, including Xenogears; its reimagination as the Xenosaga trilogy; and a graphic novel, Perfect Works, published by the game's creator.
The game Control is heavily influenced by Carl Jung's ideas, particularly synchronicity and shadow selves.
Alan Wake takes inspiration from Carl Jung's ideas of archetype and individuation.

Bibliography

Books

1910 Conflicts in the Child's Soul
1912 Psychology of the Unconscious
1916 Seven Sermons to the Dead (a part of the Red Book, published privately)
1921 Psychological Types
1933 Modern Man in Search of a Soul (essays)
1944 Psychology and Alchemy
1951 Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self
1952 Symbols of Transformation (revised edition of Psychology of the Unconscious)
1954 Answer to Job
1956 Mysterium Coniunctionis: An Inquiry into the Separation and Synthesis of Psychic Opposites in Alchemy
1957 The Undiscovered Self
1959 Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies (Translated by R. F. C. Hull)
1960 Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle
1962 Memories, Dreams, Reflections (autobiography, co-written with Aniela Jaffé)
1964 Man and His Symbols (Jung contributed one part, his last writing before his death in 1961; the other four parts are by Marie-Louise von Franz, Joseph L. Henderson, Jaffé, and Jolande Jacobi)
2009 The Red Book: Liber Novus (manuscript produced )
2020 Black Books (private journals produced , on which the Red Book is based)

Collected Works

Editors: Herbert Read, Michael Fordham, Gerhard Adler. Executive ed.: W. McGuire. Trans.: R.F.C. Hull. London: Routledge Kegan Paul (1953–1980).

:1. Psychiatric Studies (1902–1906)

:2. Experimental Researches (1904–1910) (trans L. Stein and D. Riviere)

:3. Psychogenesis of Mental Disease (1907–1914; 1919–1958)

:4. Freud and Psychoanalysis (1906–1914; 1916–1930)

:5. Symbols of Transformation (1911–1912; 1952)

:6. Psychological Types (1921)

:7. Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (1912–1928)

:8. Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche (1916–1952)

:9.1 Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (1934–1955)

:9.2 Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self (1951)

:10. Civilization in Transition (1918–1959)

:11. Psychology and Religion: West and East (1932–1952)

:12. Psychology and Alchemy (1936–1944)

:13. Alchemical Studies (1919–1945)

:14. Mysterium Coniunctionis (1955–1956)

:15. Spirit in Man, Art, and Literature (1929–1941)

:16. The Practice of Psychotherapy (1921–1925)

:17. The Development of Personality (1910; 1925–1943)

:18. The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings

:19. General Bibliography

:20. General Index

Supplementary volumes

:A. The Zofingia Lectures

:B. Psychology of the Unconscious (trans. Beatrice M. Hinckle)

Seminars

:Analytical Psychology (1925)

:Dream Analysis (1928–1930)

:Visions (1930–1934)

:The Kundalini Yoga (1932)

:Nietzsche's Zarathustra (1934–1939)

:Children's Dreams (1936–1940)

Notes

References

Sources

External links

C.G. Jung Institute, Zurich
Museum House of C.G. Jung Küsnacht, Zurich (Switzerland)
Carl Jung Resources
The Jung Page
Philemon Foundation
Bollingen Foundation Collection From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress
The Journal of Analytical Psychology
International Journal for Jungian Studies