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The literature of Myanmar () spans over a millennium. The Burmese language, unlike other Southeast Asian languages (e.g. Thai, Khmer), adopted words primarily from Pāli rather than from Sanskrit. In addition, Burmese literature tends to reflect local folklore and culture.

Burmese literature has historically been a very important aspect of Burmese life steeped in the Pali Canon of Buddhism. Traditionally, Burmese children were educated by monks in monasteries in towns and villages. During British colonial rule, instruction was formalised and unified, and often bilingual, in both English and Burmese, known as Anglo-Vernacular. Burmese literature played a key role in disseminating nationalism among the Burmese during the colonial era, with writers such as Thakin Kodaw Hmaing, an outspoken critic of British colonialism in Burma.

Beginning soon after self-rule, government censorship in Burma has been heavy, stifling literary expression. During the Bagan and Inwa dynasties, two primary types of literature flourished, mawgun () and eigyin, () and pyo (), religious works generally derived from the Jataka tales.

As literature grew more liberal and secular, poetry became the most popular form of literature in Burma. The flexibility of the Burmese language, because of its monosyllabic and tonal nature, and its lack of many consonantal finals allowed poetry to utilise various rhyming schemes. By the 15th century, four primary genres of poetry had emerged, namely pyo (poems based on the Jataka Tales, ' ( metaphysical and religious poems), mawgun (historical verses written as a hybrid of epic and ode), and eigyin (lullabies of the royal family). Courtiers also perfected the myittaza (), a long prose letter.

Buddhist monks were also influential in developing Burmese literature. Shin Aggathammadi rendered in verse the Jataka stories. During this time, Shin Maha Thilawuntha (1453–1520) wrote a chronicle on the history of Buddhism. A contemporary of his, Shin Ottama Gyaw, was famous for his epic verses called tawla () that revelled in the natural beauty of the seasons, forests and travel. Yawei Shin Htwe, a maid of honour, wrote another form of poetry called aingyin on the 55 styles of hairdressing.

After the conquest of Siam by the Toungoo dynasty, Thailand became a Burmese colony. This conquest incorporated many Thai elements into Burmese literature. Most evident were the yadu or yatu (), an emotional and philosophic verse and the yagan (), which imitated the themes of the yadu genre, which was more emotionally involved, could be inspired by mood, place, incident, and often addressed to sweethearts and wives. Famous writers of yadu include Nawade I (1545–1600) and Prince Natshinnaung (1578–1619). The other famous literature are called: taydat (), laygyo (), dwaygyo () and bawle (). Despite the fact that Burmese literature was well entrenched in Burmese culture, the lack of patrons to support literature slowed its further development. The colonial period marked a tremendous change in Burmese literature, which had once been patronised and innovated by members of the royal court, and was now being led by civilians such as university students.

In 1910, J S Furnivall established the Burma Research Society, which further emboldened the Burmese to protect their literary and cultural heritage. During the Hkit san movement, University of Rangoon students innovated new styles of writing, with shorter and clearer sentences, and unadorned prose, a radical transformation from royal writings of the pre-colonial eras beforehand. Various factors, especially the lengthened bureaucratic process to obtain printing permits, censorship, and increasing economic hardship of consumers because of the socialist economic schemes, contributed to the decline of Burmese literary output.

Popular novels have similar themes, often involving adventure, espionage, detective work, and romance. Many writers also translate Western novels, especially those of Arthur Hailey and Harold Robbins. The flourishing translation sector is the result of the Burmese government, which did not sign the Universal Copyright Convention Agreement, which would have forced Burmese writers to pay royalties to the original writers. was edited by Ko Ko Thett and James Byrne. It featured poetry from Tin Moe, Thitsar Ni, Aung Cheimt, Ma Ei, Maung Chaw Nwe, Maung Pyiyt Min, Khin Aung Aye, Zeyar Lynn, Maung Thein Zaw, Moe Zaw, Moe Way, Ko Ko Thett, Eaindra, Pandora and Maung Yu Py, and was published by Arc Publications Anthologies in Translation series and, later in 2013, by Northern Illinois University Press in the United States. This bilingual English/Burmese edition of poetry is regarded as the first anthology of modern Burmese poetry in the West.

Notable writers

The journalist Ludu U Hla (1910–1982) was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. The prime minister, U Nu, himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels.

Other writers who came of age before 1947, during the colonial era included

Hmawbi Saya Thein (1862–1942),

James Hla Kyaw (1866–1919),

U Ottama (1879–1939),

Thakin Kodaw Hmaing (1876–1964),

P Moe Nin (1883–1940),

Pe Maung Tin (1888–1973),

Po Kya (1891–1942),

Theippan Maung Wa (1899–1942),

Dagon Khin Khin Lay (1904–1981),

Saya Zawgyi (1907–1990),

Htin Aung (1909–1978),

Min Thu Wun (1909-2004),

Thukha (1910–2005),

Chit Maung (1913–1945),

Thein Pe Myint (1914–1978) who wrote the classic The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen,

Richard Bartholomew (1926–1985) and

Taw Phayar Galay (1926–2006).

Younger authors who became well known in Burma include

Aung Thin (born c. 1927),

Mya Than Tint (1929–1998) who was known for his translations of Western classics like War and Peace,

Tekkatho Phone Naing (1930–2002),

Maung Hsu Shin (c. 1932–2009),

Tin Moe (1933–2007),

Nanda Thein Zan (1947-2011), and

Pascal Khoo Thwe (born 1967).

Other well-known authors include

Thawda Swe,

Chit Oo Nyo,

Maung Khin Min (Danubyu),

and Saw Wai.

Well-known Burmese historians include

San C. Po (1870–1946),

Htin Aung (1909–1978),

Sao Saimong (1913–1987),

Ba Shin (1914–1971),

Than Tun (1923–2005),

Myoma Myint Kywe (born 1960) and

Thant Myint-U (born 1966).

Distinguished female writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include

Kyi Aye,

Ludu Daw Amar (1915–2008),

Khin Hnin Yu (1925–2003),

Aung San Suu Kyi (born 1945),

Minfong Ho (born 1951),

Nu Nu Yi (born 1957),

San San Nweh,

Jue (born 1958),

Khin Khin Htoo (born 1965)

Ma Sandar (1942 born) and

Mi Chan Wai.

One of the greatest female writers of the post-colonial period is Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay (1917–1982).

Khin Myo Chit (1915–1999) was another important writer, who wrote, among her works, The 13-Carat Diamond (1955), which was translated into many languages.

See also

  • Culture of Burma
  • Yama Zatdaw
  • Cinema of Burma
  • Censorship in Burma
  • Literature about Southeast Asia
  • List of Burmese writers
  • Annemarie Esche

References

  • A Study of the Rise of the Burmese Novel Zawgyi, Journal of Burma Research Society, June 1968
  • University of Washington Library's Burmese literature database
  • Myanmar Historical Fiction and their Historical Context U Than Htut and U Thaw Kaung, Perspective, Dec. 2001
  • Literature
  • Ayinepan Literature
  • Burmese Literature, Northern Illinois University
  • Article on Dagon Taya
  • Inked Over, Ripped Out: Burmese Storytellers and the Censors, Anna J. Allott
  • Burmese Contemporary Essays A Review by Maung Swan Yi, VOA 1 September 2006
  • Bones will Crow: 15 Contemporary Burmese Poets, translated and edited by ko ko thett and James Byrne (ARC Publications, UK 2012)