British Americans

British Americans usually refers to Americans whose ancestral origin originates wholly or partly in the British (Britis, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland and also the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, and Gibraltar). It is primarily a demographic or historical research category for people who have at least partial descent from peoples of Great Britain and the modern United Kingdom, i.e. English, Scottish, Welsh, Scotch-Irish, Orcadian, Manx, Cornish Americans and those from the Channel Islands and Gibraltar.

Based on 2020 American Community Survey estimates, 1,934,397 individuals identified as having British ancestry, while a further 25,213,619 identified as having English ancestry, 5,298,861 Scottish ancestry and 1,851,256 Welsh ancestry. The total of these groups, at 34,298,133, was 10.5% of the total population. A further 31,518,129 individuals identified as having Irish ancestry, but this is not differentiated between modern Northern Ireland (part of the United Kingdom) and the Republic of Ireland, which was part of the United Kingdom during the greatest phase of Irish immigration. Figures for Manx and Cornish ancestries are not separately reported, although Manx was reported prior to 1990, numbering 9,220 on the 1980 census, and some estimates put Cornish ancestry as high as 2 million. This figure also does not include people reporting ancestries in countries with majority or plurality British ancestries, such as Canadian, South African, New Zealander (21,575) or Australian (105,152). There has been a significant drop overall, especially from the 1980 census where 49.59 million people reported English ancestry and larger numbers reported Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish ancestry also.

Demographers regard current figures as a "serious under-count", as a large proportion of Americans of British descent have a tendency to simply identify as 'American' since 1980 where over 13.3 million or 5.9% of the total U.S. population self-identified as "American" or "United States", this was counted under "not specified". This response is highly overrepresented in the Upland South, a region settled historically by the British. Those of mixed European ancestry may identify with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group. Of the top ten family names in the United States (2010), seven have English origins or having possible mixed British Isles heritage (such as Welsh, Scottish or Cornish), the other three being of Spanish origin.

Not to be confused are cases when the term is also used in an entirely different (although possibly overlapping) sense to refer to people who are dual citizens of both the United Kingdom and the United States.

Sense of heritage

thumb|right|upright=1.35|[[UK  United States.]]

Americans of British heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply "American" due to the many historic, linguistic and cultural ties between Great Britain and the U.S. and their influence on the country's population. A leading specialist, Charlotte Erickson, found them to be ethnically "invisible". This may be due to the early establishment of British settlements; as well as to non-English groups having emigrated in order to establish significant communities.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"

! colspan="1"| Year

! Ethnic origin

! Population

! %

! colspan="2" | British; total||61,327,867||31.67

|rowspan="4"| 1980

| English ||49,598,035||26.34

| Scottish || 10,048,816||4.44

| Welsh || 1,664,598||0.88

| Northern Irish|| 16,418||0.01

!colspan="2"|Total||46,816,175||18.8

| rowspan="5"| 1990

| English||32,651,788||13.1

| Scottish|| 5,393,581|| 2.2

| Scotch-Irish || 5,617,773||2.3

| Welsh ||2,033,893||0.8

| British||1,119,140||0.4

! colspan="2"|Total||36,564,465||12.9

| rowspan="5"| 2000

| English|| 24,515,138||8.7

| Scottish || 4,890,581|| 1.7

| Scotch-Irish ||4,319,232||1.5

| Welsh ||1,753,794||0.6

| British|| 1,085,720||0.4

! colspan="2"|Total||37,619,881||14.4

| rowspan="5"| 2010

| English|| 25,927,345 || 8.4

| Scottish || 5,460,679 ||3.1

| Scotch-Irish || 3,257,161 ||1.9

| Welsh || 1,793,356|| 0.6

| British || 1,181,340|| 0.4

! colspan="2"|Total||58,649,411||TBA

| rowspan="6"| 2020

|label1 = English / Welsh

|value1 = 80.0

|color1 = DarkBlue

|label2 = Dutch

|value2 = 4.0

|color2 = Gold

|label3 = Scottish

|value3 = 3.0

|color3 = dodgerblue

|label4 = African American

|value4 = 11.0

|color4 = Green

|label5 = Other Europeans

|value5 = 2.0

|color5 = Red

|label6 =

|value6 =

|color6 =

According to estimates by Thomas L. Purvis (1984), published in the European ancestry of the United States, gives the ethnic composition of the American colonies from 1700 to 1755. British ancestry in 1755 was estimated to be 63%, comprising 52% English and Welsh, 7.0% Scots-Irish, and 4% Scottish.

| image2 = White Americans by National Origin in the 1790 Census (1909 CPG and 1929 ACLS estimates).png

| width2 = 270

| caption2 = European Americans in 1790, by nationality, according to the preliminary Century of Population Growth estimate in 1909 (top half) and revised American Council of Learned Societies study estimates accepted by the Census Bureau in 1929 (bottom half).

| alt3 =

The ancestry of the 3,929,214 population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names in the very first United States official census and assigning them a country of origin.

A study published in 1909 titled A Century of Population Growth by the Census Bureau estimated the British origin combined were around 90% of the white population.

Another source by Thomas L. Purvis in 1984 estimated that people of British ancestry made up about 62% of the total population or 74% of the white or European American population.

Around 757,208 were of African descent with 697,624 being slaves.

A Century of Population Growth (1909)

Estimated British American population in the Continental United States as of the 1790 Census. The 1980 United States Census reported 61,327,867 individuals or 31.67% of the total U.S. population self-identified as having British descent.

In 1980, 16,418 Americans reported "Northern Islander". No Scots-Irish (descendants of Ulster-Scots) ancestry was recorded, although over ten million people identified as Scottish. Additional responses were Cornish (3,991), Northern Irish 4,009 and Manx 6,317.

{|class="sort wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 95%"

!colspan=3| 2000 Census

! Ancestry

! Number

! % of total

| German||42,885,162||15.2

| African||36,419,434||12.9

| Irish||30,594,130||10.9

| English||24,515,138||8.7

| Mexican||20,640,711||7.3

| Italian||15,723,555||5.6

| French||10,846,018||3.9

| Hispanic||10,017,244||3.6

| Polish||8,977,444||3.2

| Scottish||4,890,581||1.7

| Dutch||4,542,494||1.6

| Norwegian||4,477,725||1.6

| Scotch-Irish||4,319,232||1.5

|-class="sortbottom" bgcolor="lightgrey"

|United States||281,421,906||100

thumb|British Americans

thumb|British, Irish, and White Americans not identifying ancestry

Geographical distribution

Following are the top 10 highest percentage of people of English, Scottish and Welsh ancestry, in U.S. communities with 500 or more total inhabitants (for the total list of the 101 communities, see references)

English

Hildale, Utah 66.9%
Colorado City, Arizona 52.7%
Milbridge, Maine 41.1%
Panguitch, Utah 40.0%
Beaver, Utah 39.8%
Enterprise, Utah 39.4%
East Machias, Maine 39.1%
Marriott-Slaterville, Utah 38.2%
Wellsville, Utah 37.9%
Morgan, Utah 37.2%

Scottish

Lonaconing, Maryland town 16.1%
Jordan, Illinois township 12.6%
thumb|English AmericansScioto, Ohio township 12.1%
Randolph, Indiana township 10.2%
Franconia, New Hampshire town 10.1%
Topsham, Vermont town 10.0%
Ryegate, Vermont town 9.9%
Plainfield, Vermont town 9.8%
Saratoga Springs, Utah town 9.7%
Barnet, Vermont town 9.5%

Welsh

thumb|Scottish Americans

thumb|Welsh Americans

Malad City, Idaho city 21.1%
Remsen, New York town 14.6%
Oak Hill, Ohio village 13.6%
Madison, Ohio township 12.7%
Steuben, New York town 10.9%
Franklin, Ohio township 10.5%
Plymouth, Pennsylvania borough 10.3%
Jackson, Ohio city 10.0%
Lake, Pennsylvania township 9.9%
Radnor, Ohio township 9.8%

2020 state totals

thumb|Scotch-Irish Americans

As of 2020, the distribution of British Americans (combined English, Welsh, Scottish, Scotch-Irish, and British ancestry self-identification) across the 50 states and DC is as presented in the following table:

{| class="wikitable sortable"

|+ Estimated British American population by state

! style="text-align:center; background:#9dbec3;"|State

! style="text-align:center; background:#9dbec3;"|Number

! style="text-align:center; background:#9dbec3;"|Percentage

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.13%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.97%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.28%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.03%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|8.12%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|15.67%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|11.49%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.99%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|8.97%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|10.29%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|11.69%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|6.02%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|23.59%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|8.18%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.35%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|11.53%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|14.56%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|15.46%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|7.77%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|26.78%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|10.65%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.89%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.62%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|8.13%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|10.95%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|13.07%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|17.62%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|11.14%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|10.49%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|23.75%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|6.82%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|9.87%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|7.17%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|15.58%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|6.64%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|12.92%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|11.99%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|17.51%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|11.46%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|13.51%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|14.70%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|8.77%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|14.83%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|9.32%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|33.15%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|24.45%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|14.75%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|16.00%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|16.24%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|8.11%

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|19.16%

|- class="sortbottom" bgcolor="lightgrey"

|border = "1"|

|align="right"|

|align="right"|11.40%

History

Overview

The British diaspora consists of the scattering of British people and their descendants who emigrated from the United Kingdom. The diaspora is concentrated in countries that had mass migration such as the United States (as well as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Zimbabwe) and that are part of the English-speaking world. A 2006 publication from the Institute for Public Policy Research estimated 5.6 million British-born people lived outside of the United Kingdom.

After the Age of Discovery, the British were one of the earliest and largest communities to emigrate out of Europe, and the British Empire's expansion during the latter half of the 18th century, throughout the 19th century and first quarter of the 20th century saw an "extraordinary dispersion of the British people", with particular concentrations "in Australasia and North America", and to some degree into Africa and South Asia.

The British Empire was "built on waves of migration overseas by British people", who left the United Kingdom and "reached across the globe and permanently affected population structures in three continents". In 1620, the Pilgrims established the English imperial venture of Plymouth Colony, beginning "a remarkable acceleration of permanent emigration from England" with over 60% of trans-Atlantic English migrants settling in the New England Colonies.

thumb|upright=1.25|[[John Trumbull's famous painting, Declaration of Independence. Most of the Founding Fathers had British ancestors.]]

The British policy of salutary neglect for its North American colonies intended to minimize trade restrictions as a way of ensuring they stayed loyal to British interests. The Thirteen Colonies of British America began an armed rebellion with French support against British rule in 1775 when they rejected the right of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them without representation; they proclaimed their independence in 1776, and subsequently constituted the first thirteen states of the United States of America, which became a sovereign state in 1781 with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation. The 1783 Treaty of Paris represented Great Britain's formal acknowledgment of the United States' sovereignty at the end of the American Revolutionary War.

In the original Thirteen Colonies, most laws contained strong elements found in the English common law system.

The vast majority of the Founding Fathers of the United States were of mixed British extraction. Most of them were of English descent, with smaller numbers of those of Scottish, Irish Protestant or Scots-Irish, and Welsh ancestry. A minority were of high social status and can be classified as White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP). Many of the prewar WASP elite were Loyalists who left the new nation, some moving north to the Canadian colonies which remained under British rule.

thumb|upright|[[Uncle Sam embracing John Bull, while Britannia and Columbia hold hands and sit together in the background (1898).]]

Immigration after 1776

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left"

!colspan=6|British immigration to the U.S. 1820–2000

! Period

! Arrivals

! Period

! Arrivals

! Period

! Arrivals

| 1820–1830||27,489 ||1901–1910||525,950||1981–1990||159,173

|1831–1840||75,810 ||1911–1920||341,408||1991–2000||151,866

|1841–1850||267,044 ||1921–1930||339,570|| ||

|1851–1860||423,974 ||1931–1940||31,572 || ||

|1861–1870||606,896 ||1941–1950||139,306|| ||

|1871–1880||548,043 ||1951–1960||202,824|| ||

|1881–1890||807,357 ||1961–1970||213,822|| ||

|1891–1900||271,538 ||1971–1980 ||137,374|| ||

!colspan=6 style="text-align:left;"|Total arrivals: 5,271,016

Nevertheless, longstanding cultural and historical ties have, in more modern times, resulted in the Special Relationship, the exceptionally close political, diplomatic and military co-operation of United Kingdom – United States relations. Linda Colley, a professor of history at Princeton University and specialist in Britishness, suggested that because of their strong colonial influence on the United States, the British find Americans a "mysterious and paradoxical people, physically distant but culturally close, engagingly similar yet irritatingly different".

For over two centuries (1789–2009) of early U.S. history, all Presidents with the exception of two (Van Buren and Kennedy) were descended from the varied colonial British stock, from the Pilgrims and Puritans to the Scotch-Irish and English who settled Appalachia, with more recent presidents such as Joe Biden and Donald Trump having partial British ancestry.

Cultural contributions

Much of American culture shows influences from nation states of British culture. Colonial ties to Great Britain spread the English language, legal system and other cultural attributes. Historian David Hackett Fischer has posited that four major streams of immigration from the British Isles in the colonial era contributed to the formation of a new American culture, summarized as follows:

East Anglia to New England – The Exodus of the English Puritans (Pilgrims and Puritans influenced the Northeastern United States' corporate and educational culture)
The South of England to the lowland South – The Cavaliers and Indentured Servants (Gentry influenced the Southern United States' plantation culture)
Northern England to the Delaware Valley – The Friends' Migration (Quakers influenced the Middle Atlantic and Midwestern United States' industrial culture)
The Scottish Lowlands to the Backcountry – The Flight from North Britain (Scotch-Irish, of lowland Scottish and border English descent, influenced the Western United States' ranch culture and the Southern United States' common agrarian culture)

Fischer's theory acknowledges the presence of other groups of immigrants during the colonial period, both from the British Isles (the Welsh and the Highland Scots) and not (Germans, Dutch, and French Huguenots), but believes that these did not culturally contribute as substantially to the United States as his main four.

Historical influence

Apple pie – New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially "American", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey. "As American as apple pie" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.

Automakers

Buick – David Dunbar Buick was a Scottish-born American, a Detroit-based inventor, best known for founding the Buick Motor Company.

Motorcycle manufacturer

thumb|Founders of [[Harley-Davidson, from left: William A. Davidson, Walter Davidson Sr., Arthur Davidson and William S. Harley.]]

Harley-Davidson – The Davidson brothers were of Scottish descent (William. A., Walter and Arthur Davidson) and William S. Harley of English descent. Along with Indian Motorcycle Manufacturing Company was the largest and most recognizable American motorcycle manufacturer.

Sports

Baseball – The earliest recorded game of base-ball for which the original source survives, involved the family of George II of Great Britain, played indoors in London in November 1748. The Prince is reported as playing "Bass-Ball" again in September 1749 in Walton-on-Thames, Surrey, against Lord Middlesex. The English lawyer William Bray wrote in his diary that he had played a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, also in Surrey. English lawyer William Bray recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, Surrey; Bray's diary was verified as authentic in September 2008. This early form of the game was apparently brought to North America by British immigrants. The first appearance of the term that exists in print was in "A Little Pretty Pocket-Book" in 1744, where it is called Base-Ball. Today, rounders, which has been played in England since Tudor times, holds a similarity to baseball. Although, literary references to early forms of "base-ball" in the United Kingdom pre-date use of the term "rounders".

In addition to baseball, American football is a sport that developed from soccer and Rugby, which are both sports that originated in the British Isles.

Bowling or ten-pin bowling derived from Nine-Pins (nine-pin bowling) brought over by early British settlers.

Continental Colors, 1775–1777

thumb|right|The "[[Continental Union Flag" which served as the U.S. national flag from 1776 to 1777; the thirteen stripes represent the original Thirteen Colonies.]]

The Continental Union Flag is considered to be the first national flag of the United States. The design consisted of 13 stripes, red and white, representing the original Thirteen Colonies, the canton on the upper left-hand corner bearing the British Union Flag, the red cross of St. George of England with the white cross of St. Andrew of Scotland. The flag was first flown on December 2, 1775, by John Paul Jones (then a Continental Navy lieutenant) on the ship Alfred in Philadelphia). the largest lake of the Lake District and England

Maine

Leeds after Leeds, England

Maryland

Aberdeen, Maryland after Aberdeenshire, Scotland
Chester, Maryland after Chester, England
Chestertown, Maryland after Chester, England
Essex, Maryland after Essex, England
Glencoe, Maryland after Glencoe, Scotland
Hereford, Maryland after Hereford, England
Kensington, Maryland after Kensington, England
Manchester, Maryland after Manchester, England
Olney, Maryland after Olney, England
Westminster, Maryland after Westminster, England
Salisbury, Maryland after Salisbury, England

Massachusetts

Abington, Massachusetts after Abingdon, England
Attleboro, Massachusetts after Attleborough, England
Bedford, Massachusetts after Bedford, England
Boston after Boston, England
Cambridge after the City of Cambridge, England
Charlton, Massachusetts after Charlton, London, England
Chelsea, Massachusetts after Chelsea, England
Falmouth, Massachusetts after Falmouth, England
Gloucester after Gloucester and Gloucestershire, England
Hampshire County, Massachusetts after Hampshire, England
Mansfield, Massachusetts after Mansfield, England
Middlesex County, Massachusetts after Middlesex, England
Plymouth, Massachusetts after Plymouth, England
Somerset, Massachusetts after Somerset, England
Southampton after Southampton, England
Suffolk County, Massachusetts after Suffolk, England
Swansea, Massachusetts after Swansea, Wales
Taunton, Massachusetts after Taunton, England
Weymouth, Massachusetts after Weymouth, Dorset, England
Worcester, Massachusetts after Worcester, England

Michigan

Birmingham after Birmingham, England
Plymouth after Plymouth, England

New Hampshire

New Hampshire state (after Hampshire)
Derry, New Hampshire after Derry, Northern Ireland
Durham, New Hampshire after Durham, England
Exeter, New Hampshire after Exeter, England
Londonderry, New Hampshire after Londonderry, Northern Ireland
Manchester after Manchester, England
New London, New Hampshire after London, England
Nottingham, New Hampshire after Nottinghamshire
Plymouth, New Hampshire after Plymouth, England
Portsmouth, New Hampshire after Portsmouth, England

New Jersey

New Jersey and Jersey City after Jersey

New York

New York and New York City after York, England
Albany after the Duke of Albany

North Carolina

Durham, North Carolina and Durham County, North Carolina after Durham, England
Halifax, North Carolina and Halifax County, North Carolina after Halifax, England
Brunswick County, North Carolina after House of Brunswick
New Hanover County, North Carolina after House of Hanover
Northampton County, North Carolina after Northampton, England
Richmond County, North Carolina after Richmond, London

Ohio

Kendal, Ohio after Kendal, Westmorland.
Liverpool, Medina County Ohio and East Liverpool, Ohio, after Liverpool, England.

Pennsylvania

Bucks County after Buckinghamshire, England
Chester County and Chester after Chester, England
Carlisle, Pennsylvania after Carlisle, England
Darby derived from Derby (pronounced "Darby"), the county town of Derbyshire (pronounced "Darbyshire")
Lancaster County and Lancaster after the city of Lancaster in the county of Lancashire in England, the native home of John Wright, one of the early settlers.
Reading, Berks County after Reading, Berkshire, England
Warminster after a small town in the county of Wiltshire, at the western extremity of Salisbury Plain, England.
York, Pennsylvania after York, England

Texas

Bronte, named for English novelist Charlotte Brontë (1816–1855).
Derby, after Derby, England.

In addition, some places were named after the kings and queens of the former kingdoms of England and Ireland. The name Virginia was first applied by Queen Elizabeth I (the "Virgin Queen") and Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584., the Carolinas were named after King Charles I and Maryland named so for his wife, Queen Henrietta Maria (Queen Mary). The Borough of Queens in New York was named after Catherine of Braganza (Queen Catherine), the wife of the King Charles II.

References

Scholarly sources

Bridenbaugh, Carl. Vexed and Troubled Englishmen, 1590–1642 (1976).
Erickson, Charlotte. Invisible Immigrants: The Adaptation of English and Scottish Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century America (1972_.
Furer, Howard B., ed. The British in America: 1578–1970 (1972).
the standard reference source for all ethnic groups.
McGill, David W., and John K. Pearce. "American families with English ancestors from the colonial era: Anglo Americans." in Ethnicity and family therapy (1996): 451–466; reviews modern social psychology of family types.
Shepperson, Wilbur S. British emigration to North America: projects and opinions in the early Victorian period (1957), examines opinion in Britain. online
Tennenhouse, Leonard. The Importance of Feeling English: American Literature and the British Diaspora, 1750–1850 (2007).
Van Vugt, William E. "British (English, Scottish, Scots Irish, and Welsh) and British Americans, 1870–1940’." in Elliott Barkan, ed., Immigrants in American History: Arrival, Adaptation, and Integration (2013): 4:237+.
Van Vugt, William E. British Buckeyes: The English, Scots, and Welsh in Ohio, 1700–1900 (2006).

External links

1980 U.S. Census ancestry lists
References
2000 Census Bureau ancestry figures

Sense of heritage

A Century of Population Growth (1909)

Geographical distribution

English

Scottish

Welsh

2020 state totals

History

Overview

Immigration after 1776

Cultural contributions

Historical influence

Automakers

Motorcycle manufacturer

Sports

Continental Colors, 1775–1777

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New York

North Carolina

Ohio

Pennsylvania

Texas

See also

References

Scholarly sources

External links