thumb|upright=1.25|A 17th-century manuscript page of Sadvimsha Brahmana, a Pañcaviṃśa-Brāhmaṇa supplement (Sanskrit, Devanagari). It is found embedded in the [[Samaveda.]]

The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , IAST: Brāhmaṇam) are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within each Veda, which explain and instruct on the performance of Vedic rituals (in which the related Samhitas are recited). In addition to explaining the symbolism and meaning of the Samhitas, Brahmana literature also expounds scientific knowledge of the Vedic Period, including observational astronomy and, particularly in relation to altar construction, geometry. Divergent in nature, some Brahmanas also contain mystical and philosophical material that constitutes Aranyakas and Upanishads. The oldest Brahmana is dated to about 900 BCE, while the most recent are dated to around 700 BCE.

Nomenclature and etymology

Brahmana (or Brāhmaṇam, Sanskrit: ब्राह्मणम्) can be loosely translated as 'explanations of sacred knowledge or doctrine' or 'Brahmanical explanation'. According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, 'Brahmana' means:

  • 'Explanations of sacred knowledge or doctrine [especially] for the use of the Brāhmans in their sacrifices'.
  • 'The Brāhmaṇa portion of the Veda (as distinct from its Mantra and Upanishad portion) and consisting of a class of works called Brāhmaṇas (they contain rules for the employment of the Mantras or hymns at various sacrifices, with detailed explanations of their origin and meaning and numerous old legends)'.
  • According to 'Sāyaṇa to contain two parts: 1. vidhi, rules or directions for [sacrificial] rites [and] 2. artha-vāda, explanatory remarks'.

Etymology

M. Haug states that etymologically, 'the word ['Brahmana' or 'Brahmanam'] is derived from brahman which properly signifies the Brahma priest who must know all Vedas, and understand the whole course and meaning of the sacrifice... the dictum of such a Brahma priest who passed as a great authority, was called a Brahmanam'.

  • Vyakhyana: In Brahmana works such as the Shatapatha Brahmana (6.7.4.6), 'the word vyakhyana also is a synonym of the commonly used word brahmana'. Definitions of 'Vyakhyana' (व्याख्यान) include 'explaining', 'exposition', 'elucidation', 'expounding', 'interpretation', and 'lecture'.
  • Pravachana': Another 'synonym of the brahmana word is pravachana<nowiki/>'. Definitions of 'Pravachana' (प्रवचन) include 'expounding', 'teaching', 'exposition', and 'oral instruction'.
  • Vijnayate: Is 'used to denote a reference from a brahmana work. The word has first of all been used in the Gopatha Brahmana'. Definitions of 'Vijnayate' include 'It is a fact that...' and 'be distinguished or discerned'.

Overview

thumb|Performance of [[Yajna.|alt=|250x250px]]

R. Dalal states that the 'Brahmanas are texts attached to the Samhitas [hymns] – Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas – and provide explanations of these and guidance for the priests in sacrificial rituals'. S. Shri elaborates, stating 'Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Samhitas and are in both prose and verse form... The Brahmanas are divided into Vidhi and Arthavada. Vidhi are commands in the performance of Vedic sacrifices, and Arthavada praises the rituals, the glory of the Devas and so on. The belief in reincarnation and transmigration of soul started with [the] Brahmanas... [The] Brahmana period ends around 500 BC[E] with the emergence of Buddhism and it overlaps the period of Aranyakas, Sutras, Smritis and the first Upanishads'.

M. Haug states that the 'Veda, or scripture of the Brahmans, consists, according to the opinion of the most eminent divines of Hindustan, of two principal parts, viz. Mantra [<nowiki/>Samhita] and Brahmanam... Each of the four Vedas (Rik, Yajus, Saman, and Atharvan) has a Mantra, as well as a Brahmana portion. The difference between both may be briefly stated as follows: That part which contains the sacred prayers, the invocations of the different deities, the sacred verses for chanting at the sacrifices, the sacrificial formulas [is] called Mantra... The Brahmanam [part] always presupposes the Mantra; for without the latter it would have no meaning... [they contain] speculations on the meaning of the mantras, gives precepts for their application, relates stories of their origin... and explains the secret meaning of the latter'.

J. Eggeling states that 'While the Brâhmanas are thus our oldest sources from which a comprehensive view of the sacrificial ceremonial can be obtained, they also throw a great deal of light on the earliest metaphysical and linguistic speculations of the Hindus. Another, even more interesting feature of these works, consists in the numerous legends scattered through them. From the archaic style in which these mythological tales are generally composed, as well as from the fact that not a few of them are found in Brâhmanas of different schools and Vedas, though often with considerable variations, it is pretty evident that the ground-work of many of them goes back to times preceding the composition of the Brâhmanas'.

The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) states that while 'the Upanishads speculate on the nature of the universe, and the relationship of the one and the many, the immanent and transcendental, the Brahmanas make concrete the world-view and the concepts through a highly developed system of ritual-yajna. This functions as a strategy for a continuous reminder of the inter-relatedness of man and nature, the five elements and the sources of energy'.

Performance of rituals

The Brahmanas are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explanations on the symbolic importance of sacred words and ritual actions. Academics such as P. Alper, K. Klostermaier and F.M, Muller state that these instructions insist on exact pronunciation (accent), chhandas (छन्दः, meters), precise pitch, with coordinated movement of hand and fingers – that is, perfect delivery. Klostermaier adds that the Satapatha Brahamana, for example, states that verbal perfection made a mantra infallible, while one mistake made it powerless. It seems breaking silence too early in at least one ritual is permissible in the Satapatha (1.1.4.9), where 'in that case mutter some Rik [<nowiki/>Rigveda] or Yagus-text [<nowiki/>Yajurveda] addressed to Vishnu; for Vishnu is the sacrifice, so that he thereby regains obtains a hold on the sacrifice, and penance is there by done by him'.

The Nirukta

Recorded by the grammarian Yaska, the Nirukta, one of the six Vedangas or 'limbs of the Vedas' concerned with correct etymology and interpretation of the Vedas, references several Brahmanas to do so. These are (grouped by Veda):

{| class="wikitable"

!Veda

!Brahmana

!Comment

|-

|Rigveda

|Aitareya and Kausitaki

|

|-

|Samaveda

|Sadvimsa, Mantra, and Daivata

|The Mantra Brahmana is from the first two chapters of the Chandogya Brahmana.

|-

| rowspan="2" |Yajurveda

|Shatapatha

|There are two versions or recensions by different Shakhas: Madhyandina and Kanva.

Both apply to the Śukla (White) Yajurveda.

|-

|Taittiriya

|Applies to the Krishna (Black) Yajurveda

|-

|Atharvaveda

|Gopatha

|The only surviving (i.e. extant) Brahmana of this Veda.

|}

Commentaries of Sayana

The 14th Century Sanskrit scholar Sayana composed numerous commentaries on Vedic literature, including the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. B.R. Modak states that 'king Bukka [1356–1377 CE] requested his preceptor and minister Madhavacharya to write a commentary on the Vedas, so that even common people would be able to understand the meaning of the Vedic Mantras. Madhavacharya told him that his younger brother Sayana was a learned person and hence he should be entrusted with the task'. Modak also lists the Brahmanas commented upon by Sayana (with the exception of the Gopatha): extant Brahmanas have been listed below, grouped by Veda and Shakha. Note that:

  • "--" indicates the abbreviation or school has not been provided or found
  • There are variations of how the translated names of Vedas, Shakhas, and Brahmanas are spelt
  • Lost or fragmentary Brahmanas (e.g. the Kathaka Brahmana, KathB) have not been listed (see the section of Lost Brahmanas, below)

{| class="wikitable"

! colspan="3" |Rigveda

! colspan="3" |Samaveda

! colspan="3" |YajurVeda<sup>a</sup>

! colspan="3" |Atharvaveda

|-

!Name

!Abbreviation

!Shakha

!Name

!Abbreviation

!Shakha

!Name

!Abbreviation

!Shakha

!Name

!Abbreviation

!Shakha

|-

|Aitareya

|AB, AiB

|Shakala

|Panchavimsha<sup>c</sup>

|PB

| rowspan="2" |Kuthuma-Ranayaniya / Tandin

|Shatapatha<sup>f</sup>

|SB, CB

| rowspan="2" |Mâdhyandina

|Gopatha

|GB

|Paippalada and Shaunaka

|-

|Kausitaki / Samkhyana<sup>b</sup>

|KB

|Baskala

|Tandya<sup>c</sup>

|TMB, PB

|Shatapatha<sup>f</sup>

|SBM, MSB, CB

| colspan="3" rowspan="13" |

|-

| colspan="3" rowspan="12" |

|Sadvimsa<sup>c</sup>

|SB, SadvB

| rowspan="10" |Kauthuma

|Shatapatha<sup>f</sup>

|SBK, CBK

|Kanva

|-

|Adbhuta<sup>c</sup>

|AdB

|Taittiriya

|TB

| rowspan="3" |Taittiriya

|-

| rowspan="2" |Samavidhana

| rowspan="2" |Svidh, SVB

|Taittiriya Chardi

| –

|-

|Pravargya<sup>g</sup>

|

|-

|Daivata<sup>d</sup>

|DB

|Vadhula – Anvakhyana<sup>h</sup>

| VadhAnva

|Vadhula

|-

|Samhitopanishad

|Samhitopanisad.B

| colspan="3" rowspan="7" |

|-

|Arsheya

|<nowiki>--</nowiki>

|-

|Vamsha

|VB

|-

|Chandogya<sup>e</sup>

| –

|-

|Mantra<sup>e</sup>

|MB, SMB

|-

|Jaiminiya

|JB, Jaim. Br.

| rowspan="2" |Jaiminiya

|-

|Jaiminiya Arsheya

|<nowiki>--</nowiki>

|-

| colspan="12" |<sup>a:</sup> The Śukla (White) Yajurveda referred to by the Shatapatha Brahmana is the Vajasaneyi Samhita (Mâdhyandina recension: VS, Vag. S.; Kanva recension: VSK). The Krishna (Black) Yajurveda referred to by the Taittiriya Brahmana is the Taittiriya Samhita (TS).

<sup>b:</sup> The Kausitaki and Samkhyana are generally considered to be the same Brahmana. Also called the Cankhayana Brahmana. Attributed by Caland to the Kuthuma-Ranayaniya Shakha, but by Macdonell to the Tandin Shakha.

<sup>d:</sup> Also called the Devatadhyaya Brahmana.

<sup>e:</sup> The Mantra Brahmana (also called the Samaveda-Mantrabrahmana, SMB) is from the first two chapters of the Chandogya Brahmana (also called the Chandogyaopanishad and the Upanishad Brahmana); the remaining chapters of the Chandogya Brahmana form the Chandogya Upanishad.

<sup>f:</sup> Also called the Catapatha Brahmana (CB; this abbreviation also denotes the Mâdhyandina recension)

<sup>g:</sup> Part of the Taittiriya Aranyaka; explains the Pravargya rite. Generally not considered a Brahmana-proper, although it has been published as one.

<sup>h:</sup> Linked with the Krishna (Black) Yajurveda, it is 'actually part of the Vadhula Shrauta Sutra'. Although S. Shrava considers the Kausitaki and Samkhyana Brahmanas to be separate although very similar works,

thumb|Page from the [[Aitareya Brahmana.]]

As detailed in the main article, the Aitareya Brahmana (AB) is ascribed to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya of the Shakala Shakha (Shakala school) of the Rigveda, and is estimated to have been recorded around 600-400 BCE. Notably, The story itself is remarkably similar to the legend of a Vaishnava boy called Dhruva in the Puranas (e.g. Bhagavata Purana, Canto 4, Chapter 8-12).

Kausitaki / Samkhyana Brahmana

thumb|349x349px|Page form the [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa sutra of Jaiminimi, who also recorded the Jaiminiya Brahmana and other works.|alt=]]

It seems that this Brahmana has not been fully translated to date, or at least a full translation has not been made available.

S. Shrava states that the Jaiminiya Brahmana of the Jaiminiya Shakha, also called the Talavakara Brahmana, 'is divided into 1348 khandas [verses]... Many of the sentences of this brahmana are similar to those found in Tamdya, Sadavimsam, Satapatha [Brahmanas] and [the] Taittirya Samhita [Krishna/Black Yajurveda]. Many of the hymns are found for the first time in it. Their composition is different from that available in Vedic literature. Most of the subjects described in it are completely new and are not found in other bramanas like Tamdya, etc... In the beginning khandas, details of daily oblation to the sacrificial fire are described... This brahmana was compiled by Jaimini a famous preceptor of Samaveda and the worthy disciple of Krishna Dvaipayana Vedavyasa and his disciple Talavakara'.

The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) states that the Chandogya Brahmana, also called the chanddogyopanishad Brahmana, 'is divided into ten prapathakas (chapters). Its first two prapathakas (chapters) form the Mantra Brahmana (MB) and each of them is divided into eight khandas (sections). Prapathakas 3–10 form the Chandogya Upanishad'. K.G. Witz states it is of the Kauthuma Shakha (see below).

Mantra Brahmana

K. G. Witz states that the Mantra Brahmana is 'a text in two chapters which mostly give Vedic Mantras which should be used in rites such as for birth and marriage. The combined text [with 8 chapters forming the Chandogya Upanishad] is [also] called [the] Upanishad Brahmana and is one of the eight canonical Brahmanas of the Kauthumas. The fact that the Upanishad was combined with the Mantra Brahmana into a single text is significant. Just as everyone in society is blessed and made part of the overall divine societal, social and world order by the household rites in the Mantra Brahmana, so everyone can direct his life toward the Infinite Reality by the numerous upasanas and vidyas of the Chandogya Upanishad.'

Yajurveda

Śukla (White) Yajurveda: Shatapatha Brahmana

thumb|Extract from a 13th-century manuscript of the [[Shatapatha Brahmana (Khanda 14).]]

The 'final form' of the Satapatha Brahmana is estimated to have been recorded around 1000–800 BCE, although it refers to astronomical phenomena dated to 2100 BCE, and, as quoted above, historical events such as the drying up of the Sarasvati river, which is believed to have occurred around 1900 BCE. It provides scientific knowledge of geometry and observational astronomy from the Vedic period, and is considered significant in the development of Vaishnavism as the possible origin of several Puranic legends and avatars of the RigVedic god Vishnu, all of which (Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, and Vamana) are listed in the Dashavatara.

M. Winternitz states that this Brahmana is 'the best known, the most extensive, and doubtless, also on account of its contents, the most important of all the Brahmanas'. Eggeling states that 'The Brâhmana of the Vâgasaneyins bears the name of Satapatha, that is, the Brâhmana 'of a hundred paths,' because it consists of a hundred lectures (adhyâyas). Both the Vâgasaneyi-samhitâ [Yajurveda] and the Satapatha-brâhmana have come down to us in two different recensions, those of the Mâdhyandina and the Kânva schools':

thumb|Page of the [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya Samhita.|alt=|217x217px]]

Ascribed to the sage Tittiri (or Taittiri), the Taittiriya Brahmana of the Taittiriya Shakha consists of three Ashtakas (books or parts) of commentaries on the performance of Vedic sacrificial rituals, astronomy, and information about the gods. It is stated by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) to be 'mixed of mantras and Brahmans... composed in poetic and prose manner'.

M. Winternitz adds that the "Taittiriya-Brahmana of the Black Yajurveda is nothing but a continuation of the Taittiriya-Samhita, for the Brahmanas were already included in the Samhitas of the Black Yajurveda. The Taittiriya-Brahmana, therefore, contains only later additions to the Samhita." although according to the Vishnu Purana (Book 3, Chapter 5), Taittiri and Yaska were disciples of Vaiśampáyana (500–600 BCE). According to H.H. Wilson, in the Anukramańí (index of the black Yajurveda), it 'is there said that Vaiśampáyana taught it to Yaska, who taught it to Tittiri, who also became a teacher; whence the term Taittiríya, for a grammatical rule explains it to mean, 'The Taittiríyas are those who read what was said or repeated by Tittiri'.'

Taittiriya Chardi

Although the Taittiriya Chardi Brahmana is mentioned (i.e. listed) by academics such as S. Shri no further information could be found.

Taittiriya Pravargya

The Taittiriya Pravargya is a commentary on the Pravargya ritual, contained in the Taittiriya Aranyaka. This is not listed or referred to as a Brahmana in the works cited.

Vadhula – Anvakhyana

Dalal states that the Vadhula (or Anvakhyana) Brahmana of the Vadhula Shakha is 'a Brahmana type of text, though it is actually part of the Vadhula Shrauta Sutra'. or an Anvakhyana ['explanation keeping close to the text' or 'minute account or statement']. When Caland found some newly discovered MSS [manuscript] of the Vadhula School he was not sure about the nature of the text. Because of the composite nature of the MS [manuscript] he took the text as part of the Srautasurta of the Vadhulas. However, he was not unaware of the Brahmanic character of the text... according to Caland, the word Anvakhyana was given as a specific name to the Brahmanas, or Brahmana-like passages of the Vadhulasutra'.

Atharvaveda

thumb|250x250px|[[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda samhita page.]]According to M. Bloomfield, the 9 shakhas – schools or branches – of the Atharvaveda are:|author=|title=

Bloomfield states that the Gopatha Brahmana 'does not favour us with a report of the name of its author or authors. it is divided into two parts, the purva-brahmana in five prapathakas (chapters), and the uttara-brahmana in six prapathakas. The purva shows considerable originality, especially when it is engaged in the glorification of the Atharvan and its priests; this is indeed its main purpose. Its materials are by no means all of the usual Brahmana-character; they broach frequently upon the domain of Upanishad... The uttara has certainly some, though probably very few original sections'.

S.S. Bahulkar states that the 'Gopatha Brahmana (GB.) is the only brahmana text of AV [<nowiki/>Atharvaveda], belonging to both the recensions [<nowiki/>Shakhas], viz. Saunaka and Paippalada'. Dalal agrees, stating the 'aim of this Brahmana seems to be to incorporate the Atharva [Veda] in the Vedic ritual, and bring it in line with the other three Vedas. This Brahmana is the same for the Paippalada and Shaunaka shakhas, and is the only existing Brahmana of the Artharva Veda'.

|-

|Bashkala

| rowspan="2" |Referred to in a list of manuscripts in the library of Kavindracharya Saravati.

|-

|Mandukeya

|-

|Trikharvva

| rowspan="2" |Recensions mentioned by Sayana.

|-

|Karadvisha

|}

Manuscripts and translations

Rigveda

{| class="wikitable"

!Brahmana

!Sanskrit

!Transliteration

!English

|-

|Aitareya

|archive.org: version 1, version 2

|TITUS (e-text)

|archive.org (M. Haug)

|-

|Kausitaki / Samkhyana

|

|Gretil (e-text)

|archive.org (A.B. Keith; includes the Aitareya Brahmana)

|}

Yajurveda

{| class="wikitable"

!Brahmana

!Sanskrit

!Transliteration

!English

|-

| rowspan="2" |Shatapatha (Mâdhyandina)

| rowspan="2" |archive.org: Part One, Two, and Three

|Gretil (e-text): Part One, Two, Three, Four Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Ten, Eleven, Twelve (N/A), Thirteen, Fourteen

|Sacred-Texts.com (e-texts)

|-

|Vedavid.org (e-text)

TITUS (e-text)

|Archive.org: Part One, Two, Three, Four, and Five

|-

|Shatapatha (Kanva)

|

|

|

|-

|Taittiriya

|archive.org: version 1, version 2

|TITUS (e-text)

|SAKSHI: Volume 1, Volume 2

|-

|Taittiriya Chardi

|

|

|

|-

|Vadhula – Anvakhyana

|archive.org

|

|

|}

Atharvaveda

{| class="wikitable"

!Brahmana

!Sanskrit

!Transliteration

!English

|-

|Gopatha

|archive.org: version 1 (Complete Works of Jibananda Vidyasagara),

version 2 (Rajendralala Mitra and Harachandra Vidyabhushana)

|Gretil (e-text)

TITUS (e-text)

|Shodhganga (C.G. Kashikar)

|}

Lost Brahmanas (fragments)

{| class="wikitable"

!Brahmanas

!English

|-

|Ahvaraka, Kaukati, Kalabavi, Caraka, Chagaleya, Jabali, Jaiminya, Pamgayanu, Bhallavi, Masasaravi, Maitrayaniya, Rauruki, Satyayana, Sailali, Svetasvatara, and Haridravika.

|archive.org (B. Ghosh)

|}

See also

  • Hinduism
  • Vedas
  • Vedic literature
  • Upanishad
  • Samhita
  • Aranyaka
  • Āgama (Hinduism)
  • Shruti
  • Vedanga
  • Upaveda
  • Purana
  • Vedic Period
  • Vedic Sanskrit

References