Blackfoot, also called Niitsíʼpowahsin () or Siksiká ( ; , ), is an Algonquian language spoken by the Blackfoot or people, who currently live in the northwestern plains of North America. There are four dialects, three of which are spoken in Alberta, Canada, and one of which is spoken in the United States: / (Blackfoot), to the southeast of Calgary, Alberta; / (Blood, Many Chiefs), spoken in Alberta between Cardston and Lethbridge; / (Northern Piegan), to the west of Fort MacLeod which is Brocket (Piikani) and / (Southern Piegan), in northwestern Montana. The name Blackfoot probably comes from the blackened soles of the leather shoes that the people wore.

thumb|A sign at the Siksika Health and Wellness Centre in [[Siksika 146 reads "", a Blackfoot greeting.]]

There is a distinct difference between Old Blackfoot (also called High Blackfoot), the dialect spoken by many older speakers, and New Blackfoot (also called Modern Blackfoot), the dialect spoken by younger speakers. Among the Algonquian languages, Blackfoot is relatively divergent in phonology and lexicon. The language has a fairly small phoneme inventory, consisting of 11 basic consonants and three basic vowels that have contrastive length counterparts. Blackfoot is a pitch accent language. Blackfoot language has been declining in the number of native speakers and is classified as either a threatened or endangered language, depending on the source used.

Like the other Algonquian languages, Blackfoot is considered to be a polysynthetic language due to its large morpheme inventory and word internal complexity. A majority of Blackfoot morphemes have a one–to–one correspondence between form and meaning, a defining feature of agglutinative languages. However, Blackfoot does display some fusional characteristics as there are morphemes that are polysemous. Both noun and verb stems cannot be used bare but must be inflected. Due to its morphological complexity, Blackfoot has a flexible word order.

The Blackfoot language has experienced a substantial decrease in speakers since the 1960s and is classified as "definitely endangered" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. In Canada, this loss has been attributed largely to residential schools, where Indigenous students were often punished severely for speaking their first languages. Widespread language loss can also be attributed to the Sixties Scoop, through which thousands of Indigenous children were taken from their families, often without parental consent, and relocated by the government into non-Indigenous families. As a result of these losses, the Blackfoot community has launched numerous language revitalization efforts, include the Piikani Traditional Knowledge Services and many more.

thumb|Bilingual signage in Blackfoot and English at [[Red Crow Community College]]

Language variations

Dialects

The four main Blackfoot dialects are Siksiká (), Káínai (), Aapátohsipikani ), and Aamsskáápipikani (). Some words are different in each dialect, for example: potato, in the Kainai dialect is but in Piikani dialect is , and another example: coffee, in Blackfoot dialects in Canada, is but in the Aamsskáápipikani dialect is .

Old and New Blackfoot

During language revitalization courses educators frequently had situations where the Blackfoot the students learnt from their older relatives was different from the modern Blackfoot they were being taught. The modern variety's words are usually contracted compared to the older varieties.

{| class="wikitable"

!Old Blackfoot The school was rife with physical, sexual, and psychological abuse, which left a lasting impact on the Blackfoot children who attended. The trauma endured by students, as well as the subsequent repression of their Indigenous language and culture, has been credited, in part, with the loss in the number of Blackfoot speakers.

Phonology

Consonants

Blackfoot has nineteen consonants, of which all but , , and form pairs distinguished by length. One of the two affricates is unusual for being heterorganic. Blackfoot has several allophones: for example, has many allophones. is an allophone of when it occurs after or . And is an allophone of when it occurs at the beginning of a word.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"

!

! colspan="2" |Labial

! colspan="2" |Coronal

! colspan="2" |Dorsal

!Glottal

|-

!Nasal

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| colspan="2" |

|

|-

!Plosive

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

|

|-

!Affricate

| colspan="2" |

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| colspan="2" |

|-

!Fricative

| colspan="2" |

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| colspan="2" |

|

|-

!Approximant

| colspan="2" |

| colspan="2" |

| colspan="2" |

|

|}

  1. phonemic velars become palatals after front vowels

Vowels

Monophthongs

Blackfoot has a vowel system with three monophthongs, .

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"

!

! colspan="2" |Front

! colspan="2" |Central

! colspan="2" |Back

|-

!High

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| colspan="2" |

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

|-

!Low

| colspan="2" |

| style="border-right:0" |

| style="border-left:0" |

| colspan="2" |

|}

The short monophthongs exhibit allophonic changes as well. The vowels and are raised to and ~ respectively when followed by a long consonant. The vowel becomes in closed syllables.

Length

Length is contrastive in Blackfoot for both vowels and consonants. Vowel length refers to the duration of a vowel and not a change in quality. The vowel is therefore the same sound as only differing in the length of time over which it is produced.

: {|

|

|<small> loss</small>

|

|-

|

!→

|

|-

|

|<small> loss</small>

|

|-

|

!→

|

|-

|

|<small>word-initial</small>

|

|-

|

!→

|

|}

Accent spread

Accent will spread from an accented vowel to the following vowel across morpheme boundaries.

: {|

|

|→

|

|

|

|<nowiki/>'s/he runs'

|-

|

|→

|

|

|

|<nowiki/>'shoes'

|}

Vowel devoicing

At the end of a word, non-high pitched vowels are devoiced, regardless of length.

Grammar

Lexical categories

Lexical categories in Blackfoot are a matter of debate in the literature, with the exception of nouns and verbs. Additional proposed categories, proposed by Uhlenbeck, are adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, and particles. Taylor classifies the Blackfoot language as having two major classes, substantives (nouns and pronouns) and verbs, with one minor class consisting of particles. Frantz classifies adjectives and adverbs as affixes but not independent classes.

Agreement

Agreement morphology is extensive in Blackfoot and agreement morphemes are often fusional, i.e. animacy and number (nouns) or person and number (verbs) are indicated within the same affix.

Animacy

All nouns are required to be inflected for animacy and are classified as either animate or inanimate. Verbs are inflected to match the animacy of its arguments. Animacy in Blackfoot is a grammatical construct for noun classification. Therefore, some semantically inherently inanimate objects, such as drums and knives, are grammatically animate.

Verbs are marked with a transitivity marker which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which grammatically inanimate objects are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

Number

All nouns are required to be inflected as either singular or plural. Verbal inflection matches the number of its arguments.

Word order

Word order is flexible in Blackfoot. Subjects are not required to precede the verb. Independent noun phrases may be included but these are typically dropped in Blackfoot. Due to the extensive person inflection on the verb they are not necessary for interpreting the meaning of the utterance. However, if first or second person pronouns are present it yields an emphatic reading. There is an ordering restriction if the Distinct Third Person (DTP) attached pronoun is used in which the subject independent noun phrase must occur before the verb. If the independent noun phrase occurs after the verb then the DTP may not be used.

Subjecthood

Blackfoot nouns must be grammatically particular in order to be a subject of a verb.

Person hierarchy

It has been asserted that Blackfoot, along with other Algonquian languages, violates the Universal Person Hierarchy in verb complexes by ranking second person over first person. The hierarchy has traditionally been published as 2nd person > 1st person > 3rd person (proximate) > 4th person (obviative). However, alternative analyses of Blackfoot person hierarchy have been published that suggest the Universal Person Hierarchy is applicable to Blackfoot.

Verbal structure

The Blackfoot verbal template contains a stem with several prefixes and suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Blackfoot can be roughly broken down into the pre-verb, the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final are required elements.

Generally, information encoded in the pre-verb can include adverbs, most pronouns, locatives, manners, aspect, mood, and tense. Incorporated objects appear in the medial. The final includes transitivity and animacy markers, and valency markers.

Nouns

Agreement morphology

Noun classes are split based on grammatical gender into two categories: animate and inanimate. Additionally, all nouns must be marked for number. Number agreement suffixes attach to noun stems and take four forms, as shown in the table below.

Particularity/referentiality

Blackfoot nouns must be grammatically particular, according to Frantz (2009), in order to be a subject of a verb. To be the subject of any verb in Blackfoot the noun must point to a specific referent in the world. In transitive constructions the subject must also be volitional to be interpreted as subject. If the subject of a transitive verb is non-specific or non-volitional then the verb must be inflected as having an unspecified subject.

Verbs

Verbal morphology template

There are four verb categories in Blackfoot: intransitive inanimate, intransitive animate, transitive inanimate, and transitive animate. The parameters of transitivity and animacy for verb selection are typically referred to as stem agreement in order to delineate it from person agreement. The animacy for intransitive verbs is determined by the subject of the verb whereas the transitive verbs are defined by the animacy of their primary object.

The only required component of a clause in Blackfoot is the verb, referred to as a verbal complex in the Algonquian literature, which must be appropriately inflected according to the standard template:

<blockquote>preverb – root – medial – final</blockquote>

Preverbs are prefixes which encode adverbs, most pronouns, locatives, manners, aspect, mood, and tense. Medials are suffixes which primarily encode manner and incorporated objects. Finals are suffixes which encode transitivity, animacy, and valency. Roots and finals are always required in a verbal complex whereas preverb and medials are not.

Inverse and direct theme

When there are two animate arguments acting in a transitive animate verb stem one of the arguments must be acting on the other. Which argument is the actor (subject) and which is the acted upon (object) is indicated by the use of direct or inverse theme marking. If a subject argument is higher than the object argument on the person hierarchy then the direct suffix is used. Conversely, when an object outranks the sentences subject then the inverse suffix is used.

; Direct

; Inverse

Voice and valency

Blackfoot voice alterations occur as suffixes on the verb and fall into the category of finals. Finals can include causative, benefactive, reciprocal, and reflexive affixes that either decrease or increase the valency of the stem they are attached to. Below is an example of the reflexive final suffix. It can only be added to a transitive animate stem and results in an animate intransitive stem. This is then interpreted as being a reflexive verb, where the subject of the AI (animate intransitive) stem is understood to be both the underlying subject and object of the original verb stem.

Relative clauses

Relative clauses are rare in Blackfoot but they do occur. In order to embed a clause, it needs to be nominalized first. The reclassification strategy for nominalization is displayed here followed by a relative clause that uses a nominal formed by this strategy. Reclassification is done by adding nominal inflection to the verb stem instead of person inflection. This derived form then refers to the underlying subject and agrees in both number and animacy.

Examples below show how a reclassified nominalized clause is used in a relative clause. Note the nominal agreement morphology on the verb matches the subject, singular and plural, respectively.

Orthography

thumb|Trilingual texts of English, French, and Blackfoot at [[Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump]]

Latin-script orthography

The Siksiká, Káínai, and Aapátohsipikani (Piikáni) reserves adopted a standardized Latin-script orthography in 1975. The Blackfoot alphabet consists of 13 letters: , and a glottal stop (ʼ).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"

|-

! Letter

| Aa || Hh || Ii || Kk || Mm || Nn || Oo || Pp || Ss || Tt || Ww || Yy || ʼ

|-

!IPA

| ~ || ~ ~ || ~ || || || || ~ ~ || || || || || ||

|}

Two digraphs are also used: ts and ks .

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"

|-

! Diphthongs !! IPA

|-

| ai || ~ ~ ~

|-

| ao || ~

|-

| oi ||

|}

Vowels can be marked with an acute accent or underlined to illustrate pitch accent. Vowels and consonants that are long are written with a double letter (aa = ).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"

|+ Big Bull Writing System

|-

! Letter

| ǎ || ǎa || āa/ā || āi || ai/ay || i || ii || īī || ǐǐ || īy || iw || ō/o || oō || ǒ || oǒ || ǔ

| p || ṗ || k || k̇ || m || n || t || ṫ || h || ks || ps || ts || s || ss || ʹ || ʺ || w || y || ꞏ

|-

!IPA

| || || || || || || || || || || || ~ || ~ || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||

|}

This writing system is used in some schools in Aamsskáápipikani / ǎmssk̇ǎaṗiiṗiik̇ǔni, mainly used in Blackfeet Community College, and also used in various places in the United States, and Canada.

Holterman Writing System

The Holterman Writing System was developed by Linguist Jack Holterman and is used by the Piegan Institute to write and teach in Blackfoot. This writing system is similar to Donald Frantz's Orthography, though uses for and for . It also leave out long vowels and glottal stops. The Holterman Writing System consists of 15 letters.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"

|+ Holterman Writing System

|-

! Letter

| A a || H h || I i || K k || M m || N n || O o || P p || S s || T t || U u || W w || X x || Y y || Z z

|-

!IPA

| , || ~~ || ~, || || || || ~~, ~ || || || || || || || ||

|}

This writing system is used in Nizi Puh Wah Sin (Cuts School) and some places in Aamsskáápipikani (Blackfeet Nation).

Weatherwax Writing System

The Weatherwax Writing System was developed by Elder Wayne Weatherwax and is used by some schools and places in Aamsskáápipikani (Blackfeet Nation). This writing system is used for Phonetic purposes. The Weatherwax Writing System consists of 12 letters.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"

|+ Weatherwax Writing System

|-

! Letter

| A || H || I || K || M || N || O || P || S || T || W || Y

|-

!IPA

| ~ || ~ ~ || ~ || || || || ~ ~ || || || || ||

|}

Syllabic writing systems

thumb|A Blackfoot language text with both missionary J.W. Tims' Syllabary and the Latin orthographythumb|Table of T.F. Heavyrunner's Blackfoot syllabics (standard)

thumb|Table of T.F. Heavyrunner's Blackfoot syllabics (stops)

thumb|Table of T.F. Heavyrunner's Blackfoot syllabics (extension)

thumb|Table of T.F. Heavyrunner's Blackfoot syllabics (infection)

Blackfoot Syllabary

A syllabics script, or , was created by Anglican missionary John William Tims around 1888, for his Bible translation work. Although conceptually nearly identical to Western Cree syllabics, the letter forms are innovative. Two series (s, y) were taken from Cree but given different vowel values; three more (p, t, m) were changed in consonant values as well, according to the Latin letter they resembled; and the others (k, n, w) were created from asymmetrical parts of Latin and Greek letters; or in the case of the zero consonant, possibly from the musical notation for quarter note. The Latin orientation of the letters is used for the e series, after the names of the Latin letters, pe, te, etc.

{| class="wikitable"

!Blackfoot!!Latin source

|-

| ᑭ pe || P

|-

| ᒥ te || T

|-

| ᖼ ke || K

|-

| ᒋ me || m

|-

| ᖸ ne || N

|-

| ᖴ we || digamma Ϝ

|}

The direction for each vowel is different from Cree, reflecting Latin alphabetic order. The e orientation is used for the diphthong . Symbols for syllable final/medial consonants are taken from the -a series consonant symbol minus the stem, also forming diphthongs (Ca plus -w for Cao, and Co plus -y for Coi though there are also cases of writing subphonemic with these finals), while the medials form the affricates /ks/, /ts/ like , and clusters like , .

{| class="wikitable"

! C !! -a !! -e !! -i !! -o !! final || medial

|- align="center"

| (none) || ᖳ || ᖰ || ᖱ || ᖲ || ||

|- align="center"

| align="left" | p- || ᑫ || ᑭ || ᑯ || ᑲ || ᐤ ||

|- align="center"

| align="left" | t- || ᒣ || ᒥ || ᒧ || ᒪ || ᐨ ||

|- align="center"

| align="left" | k- || ᖿ || ᖼ || ᖽ || ᖾ || ᘁ ||

|- align="center"

| align="left" | m- || ᒉ || ᒋ || ᒍ || ᒐ || ᐢ ||

|- align="center"

| align="left" | n- || ᖻ || ᖸ || ᖹ || ᖺ || ᐡ ||

|- align="center"

| align="left" | s- || ᓭ || ᓯ || ᓱ || ᓴ || ᔈ || ᐧ

|- align="center"

| align="left" | y- || ᔦ || ᔨ || ᔪ || ᔭ || ᐟ || ᑉ

|- align="center"

| align="left" | w- || ᖷ || ᖴ || ᖵ || ᖶ || ᐠ || ᙿ

|}

There are additional finals: allophones and .

is used for a period.

A modified version of the Latin script may also be used for fonts or computers that do not have the sufficient letters used in the standard orthography.

Blackfoot syllabics

The Blackfoot syllabics is a syllabic script, developed by Thomas Floyd Heavyrunner, who introduced the syllabics to Sheldon First Rider around the 20th century. Its purpose is for reviving Blackfoot. The syllabics were inspired by the Cherokee syllabary. They received assistance from Red Iron Labs to develop a keyboard and an app called "oo(kg)ee". The Blackfoot syllabics consists of four charts of 80 characters with plain characters and markings.

Literature

John Tims was an Anglican clergyman with the Church Missionary Society. He was at Blackfoot reserve from 1883 to 1895. Tims translated parts of the Bible into Blackfoot. Selections from Matthew were published by the Church Missionary Society Mission Press in 1887. The Gospel of Matthew was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1890, and other portions of Scripture were published as Readings from the Holy Scriptures by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1890. He used both Roman script and a Canadian Aboriginal syllabics script. The Gospel of Mark was translated by Donald G. Frantz and Patricia Frantz, and published by Scriptures Unlimited, a joint venture of the New York Bible Society (later called Biblica) and the World Home Bible League (later called the Bible League) in 1972. The Gospel of John was Translated by Wycliffe Bible Translators and Blackfoot people and published by the Canadian Bible Society in 1979.

Causes of endangerment

Negative attitude towards Blackfoot is the primary reason for endangerment. Most children were discouraged from speaking the minority language in schools or public places. It is predicted that Blackfoot is used mostly by the grandparental generation and up. Due to the lack of speakers, the language will likely be extinct within the next 40 years. Once older people pass away, no one will be speaking Blackfoot unless something changes.

According to the UNESCO Factor 9: Amount and Quality of Documentation, there may be adequate grammar or sufficient amount of grammar, dictionaries, and texts. The newest edition includes more than 1,000 new entries, major additions to verb stems, contains more than 5,500 Blackfoot–English entries, and an English index of more than 6,000 entries. a private 501(c)(3) non-profit foundation in Montana dedicated to researching, promoting, and preserving the Native American Languages, particularly the Blackfoot language. Piegan Institute founded Nizipuhwahsin (also Nizi Puh Wah Sin or Niitsípuwahsin or Cuts Wood) School in 1995 as a Blackfoot language K–8 immersion school. Since its inception the school has grown and relocated to the center of Browning, Montana, in a custom-built schoolhouse. Recently, some of the school's first graduates have returned to teach the newest generation the Blackfoot language.

Blackfeet Community College

Blackfeet Community College (BCC), founded in 1974, is a two-year, nationally accredited college that was made possible by the Indian Education Act of 1972 and the 1964 Act enacted by the Office of Economic Opportunity. BCC is a member of both the American Indian Higher Education Consortium and the American Indian Science and Engineering Society (AISES). It allows teenagers and adults alike to take classes in a wide range of subjects, from classes in Psychology and Digital Photography to classes on Blackfoot language and tradition. They have beginning Blackfoot language classes with labs for members and non-members of the community to learn the language.

Chief Mountain Technologies

In order to create jobs for the Blackfoot people with real-world applications, the Blackfeet Tribal Business Council launched a company called Chief Mountain Technologies in 2009. This company gives tribal members the opportunity to work in the fields of computer science and business in Browning, Montana, on behalf of various government organizations. The establishment of this company in the Blackfoot community allows the people to use their culture and their language in the modern world while maintaining their traditions.

Radio programming in Blackfoot

Radio station KBWG in Browning, Montana, broadcasts a one-hour show for Blackfoot language learners four times a week. The Voice of Browning, Thunder Radio, FM 107.5, or (literally 'voice from nowhere') went live in 2010, and focuses on positive programming. In 2011, John Davis, a 21-year-old Blackfeet Community College student explained, "I was the first Blackfeet to ever talk on this radio", Davis said. "This is my coup story." A story in the Great Falls Tribune noted, "When the station was replaying programming that originated elsewhere, the radio was all 'tear in my beer' and 'your cheatin' heart.' They called it the suicide station for its depressing old country themes..." The station's offerings have now expanded beyond country to include AC/DC and Marvin Gaye, and "on-the-air jokes they would never hear on a Clear Channel radio station, such as: 'The captain is as cool as commodity cheese.

"So far we have broadcasting Monday through Friday from around 6:30, Indian time", quipped station manager Lona Burns, "to around 11, Indian time." ... "Its Indian radio", agreed Running Crane. "Where else can you hear today's hits with traditional music?"

Canadian government support

thumb|A Blackfoot language Stop Sign at Siksiká Reserve

The Canadian government has provided support for the languages through funds and other financial resources. According to James Moore, the former Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages, "the Government of Canada is committed to the revitalization and preservation of Aboriginal languages." The funding was put to use in the form of digital libraries containing interviews with native speakers, online courses, and various other resources in the hopes of promoting Blackfoot language and passing it down to subsequent generations. On top of both of these government efforts, the Canadian Government has also provided over $40,000 through the Aboriginal Languages Initiative Fund to promote the use of Aboriginal languages in community and family settings.

In 2019 the Canadian government announced their investment of over $1.5 million towards supporting Indigenous languages in Southern Alberta. Eleven out of seventeen projects approved for funding focus on revitalization of the Blackfoot language and include efforts such as language classes, illustrated workbooks, graphic novels, a video game, and a mobile app.

In addition to federal funding, the Blackfoot language is also supported through Alberta's Indigenous Languages in Education grant program. This program offers up to $285,000 annually towards the development of Indigenous language training, programs, and curricula for instructors between Kindergarten and Grade 12, and an additional $50,000 annually towards development of new resources for Indigenous language teaching and learning.

thumb|A handicap parking sign in Blackfoot, at Red Crow Community College

Piikani Traditional Knowledge Services

thumb|MiiKyaaPii Language House Centre, a centre located by Peigan Board of Education, [[Brocket, Alberta|Brocket, Alberta, Canada]]

Piikani Traditional Knowledge Services serve the Piikani Nation as the first stop in understanding the development of meaningful relationships with the Indigenous Nation. Their vision is to enhance, preserve, protect, and be keepers of the Piikani culture, language, spirituality, songs, customs, and history.

Vocabulary

Some Blackfoot Vocabulary is presented below.

Word lists

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Numbers

|-

! Blackfoot !! English

|-

| Niʼtókskaa || One

|-

| Náátoʼka || Two

|-

| Nioókska || Three

|-

| Niisó(yi) || Four

|-

| Nisitó(yi) || Five

|-

| Náao(yi) || Six

|-

| Ihkitsíkaa || Seven

|-

| Náániso(yi) || Eight

|-

| Piihkssó(yi) || Nine

|-

| Kiipó(yi) || Ten

|-

| Niʼtsikópotto || Eleven

|-

| Náátsikopotto || Twelve

|-

| Niiíkopotto || Thirteen

|-

| Niisóíkopotto || Fourteen

|-

| Niisitsíkopotto || Fifteen

|-

| Náaikopotto || Sixteen

|-

| Ihkitsikikopotto || Seventeen

|-

| Náánisikopotto || Eighteen

|-

| Piihkssikopotto || Nineteen

|-

| Náátsippo || Twenty

|-

| Niiyíppo || Thirty

|-

| Niisíppo || Forty

|-

| Niisitsippo || Fifty

|-

| Náaippo || Sixty

|-

| Ihkitsikippo || Seventy

|-

| Náánisippo || Eighty

|-

| Piihkssippo || Ninety

|-

| Kiipíppo || One hundred

|-

| Omahksíkiipippo || One thousand

|-

| iksíkkáaaʼsi || One million

|-

| omahkssaikimaiksikkáaaʼsi || One trillion

|}

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Animals

|-

! Blackfoot !! English

|-

| Píítaa || Eagle

|-

| Ksikkihkíni || Bald Eagle

|-

| Otaikimmio’tokaan || Golden Eagle

|-

| Kiááyo || Bear

|-

| Iiníí || Buffalo (Bison)

|-

| Áwákaasii || Deer

|-

| Issikotoyi / Síkohtoyi / Áísikotoyi || Mule Deer

|-

| Áwatoyi / Paahkoomokonaisikaayayi || White tail deer

|-

| Saokiawakaasi || Pronghorn

|-

| Makóyi || Wolf

|-

| Matsiyíkkapisaa || Frog

|-

| Ponoká || Elk

|-

| Ponokáómitaa || Horse

|-

| Ókoʼsiipokaa || Colt

|-

| Ááattsistaa || Rabbit

|-

| Sspopíi || Turle

|-

| Míísinsski || Badger

|-

| Piʼkssíí || Bird

|-

| Póós || Cat

|-

| Áápotskina || Cow

|-

| Aiksippoyinnomoa || Milk cow

|-

| Onistaahs || Calf

|-

| Áísaayoohkomi || Bull

|-

| Imitáá || Dog

|-

| Mamíí || Fish

|-

| Sinopáá || Fox

|-

| Omahkokata || Gopher

|-

| Áíksini || Pig

|-

| Kaiskááhpa / Kaaysskááhp || Porcupine

|-

| Íímahkihkinaa || Sheep

|-

| Piksííksiinaa / Pitsííksiinaa || Snake

|-

| Aapíʼsi || Coyote

|-

| Naanaisskiinaa || Mouse

|-

| Áápiikayi || Skunk

|-

| Kitsisomahkokata || Raccoon

|-

| Otáá / Áápaa || Weasel

|-

| Natáyo / Natááyo || Lynx

|-

| Omahkatayo || Cougar

|-

| Áápomahkihkinaa || Mountain goat

|-

| Sikihtsisoo || Moose

|-

| Áímmóniisi || Otter

|-

| Ksísskstaki || Beaver

|-

| Soyiiʼkayi || Mink

|-

| Míʼsohpsski || Muskrat

|-

| Komoyokstsiikinakim || Worm

|-

| Soyʼsksíssi || Fly

|-

| Áísskoʼkíínaa || Ant

|-

| Ksisówáwakaasi / Ksiwáwákaasi || Spider

|-

| Naamóó || Bee

|-

| Apánii || Butterfly

|-

| Ksisohksísi || Mosquito

|-

| Tsikatsíí || Grasshopper

|-

| Naamsskíí || Lizard

|-

| Maiʼstóó || Crow

|-

| Omahkáí'stoo || Raven

|-

| Sipistto || Owl

|-

| Omahksiipiiʼkssíí || Turkey

|-

| Kakkoo || Pigeon

|-

| Saʼáí || Duck

|-

| Áápsspini || Goose

|-

| Ksikkómahkayii / Imííhkayii || Swan

|-

| Matsííyiiʼsaiʼpiyi || Loon

|-

| Mamiáʼtsíkimi || Magpie

|-

| Otahkoikayis || Yellow Flicker

|-

| Soohksiisiimsstaan || Meadow Lark

|-

| Ótsskoisisttsi || Blue Bird (Blue Jay)

|-

| Paahpaakssksisii || Woodpecker

|-

| Áótahkááokayis || Robin

|-

| Áyinnimaa || Hawk

|-

| Aapiipíssoohtsi || Marsh Hawk

|-

| Omahksisttsiipanikimm || Hawk (Cooper's Hawk)

|-

| Iihpohsóaʼtsii || American rough-legged hawk

|-

| Íípakssóaʼtsimioʼp || Rough-legged hawk

|-

| Ótahkohsóaʼtsis || Redtail hawk

|-

| Písspsksi || Sparrow hawk (American Kestral Falcon)

|-

| Síkohpoyitaipanikimm || Swainson's hawk

|-

| Áóksspiakii / Maká’pipiitaa || Bat

|-

| Niʼtawáakii || Chicken

|-

| Ómahkiʼtawáakii || Rooster

|-

| Kíítokii || Prairie Chicken

|}

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Body parts

|-

! Blackfoot !! English

|-

| Moistóm || Body

|-

| Ohkin || Bone

|-

| Yaamsstsinniman || Braid

|-

| Moʼp / Oʼp || Brain

|-

| Mónnikis || Breast

|-

| Máókayis || Chest

|-

| Mohtóókis / Ohtookis || Ear

|-

| Mohkínsstsis || Elbow

|-

| Moápssp || Eye

|-

| Mosstoksís / Mosstiksís || Face

|-

| Mookítsis || Finger / Toe

|-

| Moʼtsís || Hand / Arm

|-

| Moʼtokáán || Head / Hair

|-

| Mohkát(i) || Leg / Foot

|-

| Maoó || Mouth

|-

| Awóʼtaanookitsis || nail of the toe or finger

|-

| Mohksisís || Nose

|-

| Mohpííkin || Tooth

|-

| Matsiní || Tongue

|}

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Clothing

|-

! Blackfoot !! English

|-

| Istotoohsin || Clothes

|-

| Istotóóhsinniaawa || Clothing

|-

| Kiááyo immoyáán / Kiááyootokis || Bear robe

|-

| Óʼkinisókaʼsim || Blouse

|-

| Áwákaasiisókaʼsim || Buckskin dress

|-

| Áwákaasiistotoohsin || Buckskin outfit

|-

| Iiníí immoyáán || Buffalo robe

|-

| Isspakóótohtonaitsikin || High-topped moccasin

|-

| Aakáísatstaais / Aakáísatstaa || Hudson Bay Coat/blanket

|-

| Isttsikánokoisokaʼsim / Isttsikapokoisokaʼsim || Leather jacket

|-

| Naaipisstsiitsikin || Sport shoe, sneaker

|-

| Niitsítsikin || Moccasin

|-

| Maaan || Shawl

|-

| Isttohksísokaʼsim || Shirt

|-

| Asókaʼsim || Jacket, Dress

|-

| Ótsskoitsis / Áttsii || Overall pants

|-

| Atsikín || Shoe

|-

| Atóʼahsim || Sock

|-

| Isttsómoʼkaan || Hat

|-

| Aamsskáápaipisstsioksim || Pendleton Coat

|-

| Iihtáísoksistawaʼsaoʼp || Vest

|}

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Colours

|-

! Blackfoot !! English

|-

| Siksinááttsi(wa) || Black

|-

| Apoyíínaattsi(wa) / Sikoyahkoinááttsi(wa) || Brown

|-

| Áótahkoinááttsi(wa) || Orange

|-

| I’kiinááttsi(wa) || Pink

|-

| Sáíssksiimokoinaattsi(wa) || Green

|-

| Máóhksinááttsi(wa) || Red

|-

| Ksikksinááttsi(wa) || White

|-

| Ótsskoinaattsi(wa) || Blue

|-

| Ikkitsinááttsi(wa) || Grey

|-

| Ótahkoinááttsi(wa) || Yellow

|-

| Sikotssoinááttsi(wa) || Purple

|}

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Commands

|-

! Blackfoot !! English

|-

| Píít! || Come in! (Singular)

|-

| Píík! || Come in! (Plural)

|-

| Sáksit! || Go outside! (Singular)

|-

| Sáksik || Go outside! (Plural)

|-

| Pohsápot! || Come here! (Singular)

|-

| Pohsápok! || Come here! (Plural)

|-

| Misstápot! || Go away! (Singular)

|-

| Misstápok! || Go away! (Plural)

|-

| Mákopiit! || Sit down! (Singular)

|-

| Mákopiik! || Sit down! (Plural)

|-

| Popóyiit! || Stand up! (Singular)

|-

| Popóyiik! || Stand up! (Plural)

|-

| Káyinnit kitsím! || Open the door!

|-

| O'kíít kitsím! || Close the door!

|-

| Ooyít! || Eat! (Singular)

|-

| Ooyík! || Eat! (Plural)

|-

| Simít! || Drink! (Singular)

|-

| Simík! || Drink! (Plural)

|-

| Ko’kíít! || Give it to me!

|-

| Kótsis! || Give to him!/her!

|-

| Óóhkimaat! || Wait! (Singular)

|-

| Óóhkimaak! || Wait! (Plural)

|-

| Sokáí’piiyit! || Stop!

|-

| Pokákit! || Wake up! (Singular)

|-

| Pokákik! || Wake up! (Plural)

|-

| Powáót! || Get up! (Singular)

|-

| Powáók || Get up! (Plural)

|-

| Issiskíítsit! || Wash your face!

|-

| Istsimííyit! || Wash your hands!

|-

| Issiikííniistsit || Brush your teeth!

|-

| Ákksskiinííyit || Comb your hair!

|-

| Mátoyokaat! || Go to sleep!

|-

| Saotááwahkaat! || Go outside and play!

|-

| Isspómmokit! || Help me!

|-

| Isspómmos! || Help him!/her!

|-

| Issákit! || Wash the dishes!

|-

| Ksikkápistotákit! || Clean up!

|-

| Kitsitáyokahpa! || Clean up your bedroom!

|-

| Aksistótohsit! || Put your clothes on!

|-

| Máá’ksaapsskaohsit! || Put your coat on!

|-

| Iksskóópiit! || Sit still! (Singular)

|-

| Iksskóópiik! || Sit still! (Plural)

|-

| Isstsánopiit! || Sit and listen! (Singular)

|-

| Isstsánopiik! || Sit and listen! (Plural)

|-

| Mátoyakopiit! || Go and sit down! (Singular)

|-

| Mátoyakopiik! || Go and sit down! (Plural)

|-

| Ámm istópiit! || Sit here! (Singular)

|-

| Ámm istópiik! || Sit here! (Plural)

|-

| Omm istópiit! || Sit there! (Singular)

|-

| Omm istópiik! || Sit there! (Plural)

|-

| Issámokit! || Look at me! (Singular)

|-

| Issámokik! || Look at me! (Plural)

|-

| Isstsííyit! || Listen! (Singular)

|-

| Isstsííyik! || Listen! (Plural)

|-

| Nitákit! || Hurry! (Singular)

|-

| Nitákik! || Hurry! (Plural)

|-

| Oo’kíí! / Okí! || Let's go!

|-

| Anákimaat! || Turn on the lights!

|-

| Misstápohtoot! || Put it away!

|-

| Misstápapiksit! || Throw it away!

|-

| Kakó! || Go ahead!

|-

| Iiyiká’kimaat || Try hard! (Singular)

|-

| Iiyiká’kimaak || Try hard! (Plural)

|-

| Mááksipoyit! || Line up!

|-

| Máksstsitsikit! || Put your shoes on!

|-

| Mákssapsskaohsit! || Put your jacket on!

|}

Sample text

{| class="wikitable"

|+Lord's Prayer

!English

!Blackfoot

|-

|Our Father, who art in heaven,

hallowed be thy name;

thy kingdom come;

thy will be done;

on earth as it is in heaven.

Give us this day our daily bread.

And forgive us our trespasses,

as we forgive those who trespass against us.

And lead us not into temptation;

but deliver us from evil.

Amen.

|Aayo kinnoon, Spoohtsi kitsitaopi

Kitsinihkaʼsimi ikainaiiyiʼtsiʼp;

Naakoohk itoʼtoohpinaan anniihk

kitsiʼtaamipaitapiiyssini, Aann kaanistaiʼtaam

iksimsstatoʼpi kookoowaayi spoohtsi,

Aann akoohkattanistaisiiwa anno ksaahkoyi.

Kokkinaan naahksowatoʼpinnaani annohk ksiistoikoi;

Noohk aisskahsiʼtsit nipahtsaʼpssinnaanistsi,

Aann naanistaisskahsiʼtsiʼpinnaani

naanistaipahtsiistotootsipinnaani.

Miinoohk itoʼtsiipiookinnaan iiyikoyi,

ooki noohksikamotssiipiookinnaan

Aamoistsiyay noohkaohsiihkatooʼpi.

Amen.

|}

References

Bibliography

  • Berman, H. (2006, April 1). Studies in Blackfoot Prehistory. Retrieved February 12, 2016,
  • Bortolin, Leah and Sean McLennan. A Phonetic Analysis of Blackfoot. MS, University of Calgary, 1995.
  • Denzer-King, R. (n.d.). Google Books. Retrieved February 12, 2016
  • Derrick, D. (n.d.). Syllabification and Blackfoot. Retrieved February 10, 2016, from http://www.ece.ubc.ca/~donaldd/publications/proceedings_NWLC22_donald_der rick.pdf
  • Frantz, Donald G. and Norma Jean Russell. Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots, and Affixes, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017. (Second edition published 1995, ). (First edition published 1989, ).
  • (Second edition published 1997, ).
  • Geers, Gerardus Johannes, "The Adverbial and Prepositional Prefixes in Blackfoot", dissertation. Leiden, 1921
  • Uhlenbeck, C.C. A Concise Blackfoot Grammar Based on Material from the Southern Peigans, New York: AMS, 1978. (Originally published 1938 by Hollandsche Uitgevers-Maatschappij, Amsterdam, in series Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe Reeks, Deel XLI)
  • Uhlenbeck, C.C. An English-Blackfoot Vocabulary, New York: AMS, 1979. (Originally published 1930 in series: Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Afd. Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, Deel 29, No. 4)
  • Uhlenbeck, C.C. and R.H. van Gulik. A Blackfoot-English Vocabulary Based on Material from the Southern Peigans, Amsterdam: Uitgave van de N.V. Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers-Jaatschapp-ij, 1934. (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie Van WetenSchappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, Deel XXXIII, No. 2)
  • <!--| access-date = 2012-07-29-->
  • Uhlenbeck, Christianus Cornelius. 1912. A new series of Blackfoot texts: from the southern Peigans Blackfoot Reservation Teton County Montana. (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Afdeeling Letterkunde, N.R. 13.1.) Amsterdam: Müller. x+264pp. Retrieved from http://glottolog.org/resource/reference/id/127554
  • Uhlenbeck, Christianus Cornelius. 1938. A Concise Blackfoot Grammar. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers-Maatschappij. Retrieved from http://glottolog.org/resource/reference/id/100587

Further reading

  • Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2007. "Typological distinctions in word-formation." Language Typology and Syntactic Description: Vol 3, ed. by T. Shopen, 1–65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Armoskaite, Solveiga. 2011. The destiny of roots in Blackfoot and Lithuanian. PhD Dissertation, University of British Columbia.
  • Piegan Institute
  • Blackfoot Language Group, University of Montana
  • Don Frantz's page on the Blackfoot language
  • Blackfoot – English Dictionary: from *Webster's Online Dictionary – The Rosetta Edition.
  • Blackfeet Language at Saokio Heritage
  • Blackfoot Digital Library.org
  • Biblical online study material (articles, publications, audio and video files) in Blackfoot language by Jehovah's Witnesses
  • Tribal immersion schools rescue language and culture
  • Teacher on use of Nintendo for Siksika instruction
  • OLAC resources in and about the Siksika language
  • Stocken, Harry W.G.: First ten chapters of St. Matthew's Gospel = ᖳᐦᓱᒧᐧᖹᖽᐧᖹ ᒉᒧᔭ ᖲᐨᓱᖻᐟᑊᑯ (Akhsitsiniksini Matiyo otsinaihpi). Toronto?, 1888 (Peel 1755)