Biblical archaeology

thumb|The [[Levant and Canaan]]

Biblical archaeology is an academic school and a subset of Biblical studies and Levantine archaeology. Biblical archaeology studies archaeological sites from the Ancient Near East and especially the Holy Land (also known as Land of Israel and Canaan), from biblical times.

The Hebrew Bible is typically the main reference in biblical archaeology, as it broadly covers the Iron Age Palestinian region. Its primary purpose is to use the archeological record to attempt to fill in gaps in biblical historiography. Although both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament are taken into account, the majority of the study centers around the former.

History

The study of biblical archaeology started at the same time as general archaeology, the development of which relates to the discovery of highly important ancient artifacts.

Biblical archaeology emerged in the late 19th century, by British and American archaeologists, with the aim of confirming the historicity of the Bible. Between the 1920s, right after World War I, when Palestine came under British rule and the 1960s, biblical archaeology became the dominant American school of Levantine archaeology, led by figures such as William F. Albright and G. Ernest Wright. The work was mostly funded by churches and headed by theologians. From the late 1960s, biblical archaeology was influenced by processual archaeology ("New Archaeology") and faced issues that made it push aside the religious aspects of the research. This has led the American schools to shift away from biblical studies and focus on the archaeology of the region and its relation with the biblical text, rather than trying to prove or disprove the biblical account. William G. Dever has correctly described the secularization of "biblical archaeology", but he abandoned the name "Syro-Palestinian archaeology". His papers from 1992 and 1993 were in many ways predictive of what was to come, but the name of the field he used did not stick.

Many archaeological findings from Israel-Palestine are banned from publishing, for political reasons.

Schools of thought

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Biblical archaeology is the subject of ongoing debate. One of the sources of greatest dispute is the period when kings ruled Israel, more generally the historicity of the Bible. It is possible to define two loose schools of thought regarding these areas: biblical minimalism and maximalism, depending on whether the Bible is considered to be a non-historical, religious document or not. The two schools are not separate units but form a continuum, making it difficult to define different camps and limits. However, it is possible to define points of difference, although these differences seem to be decreasing over time.

Summary of important archaeological sites and findings

thumb|The caves at [[Qumran, where one of biblical archaeology's most important findings of all time was found, in the valley of the Dead Sea]]

Selected discoveries

Detailed lists of objects can be found at the following pages:

List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology
List of burial places of Abrahamic figures
List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts, List of New Testament papyri and List of New Testament uncials
List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources

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Biblical archeological forgeries

Biblical archaeology has also been the target of several celebrated forgeries, which have been perpetrated for a variety of reasons. One of the most celebrated is that of the James Ossuary, when information came to light in 2002 regarding the discovery of an ossuary, with an inscription that translated to "Jacob, son of Joseph and brother of Jesus". In reality the artifact had been discovered twenty years before, after which it had exchanged hands a number of times and the inscription had been added. This was discovered because it did not correspond to the pattern of the epoch from which it dated. Another item that came from the same dealer was the Jehoash Inscription, which describes repairs to the temple in Jerusalem. The authenticity of the inscription is debated.

Since this time, archaeology has been considered to provide valuable assistance and as an indispensable tool of the biblical sciences.

Expert commentaries

Archaeologist William G. Dever contributed to the article on "Archaeology" in the Anchor Bible Dictionary. In the article, Dever reiterated his perceptions of the negative effects of the close relationship that has existed between Syro-Palestinian archaeology and biblical archaeology, which had caused the archaeologists working in the field, particularly the American archaeologists, to resist adoption of the new methods of processual archaeology. In addition, he considered that "underlying much scepticism in our own field [referring to the adaptation of the concepts and methods of a "new archaeology", one suspects the assumption (although unexpressed or even unconscious) that ancient Palestine, especially Israel during the biblical period, was unique, in some "superhistorical" way that was not governed by the normal principles of cultural evolution".

Dever found that Syro-Palestinian archaeology had been treated in American institutions as a sub-discipline of bible studies, where it was expected that American archaeologists would try to "provide valid historical evidence of episodes from the biblical tradition". According to Dever, "the most naïve [idea regarding Syro-Palestinian archaeology] is that the reason and purpose of "biblical archaeology" (and, by extrapolation, of Syro-Palestinian archaeology) is simply to elucidate facts regarding the Bible and the Holy Land".

Dever has also written that:

Dever also wrote:

Tel Aviv University archaeologist Ze'ev Herzog wrote the following in the Haaretz newspaper:

Other scholars have argued that Asherah may have been a symbol or icon in the context of Yahwism rather than a deity in her own right, and her association with Yahweh does not necessarily indicate a polytheistic belief system. However, Judahite/Israelite polytheism is a commonplace for mainstream historians. William Foxwell Albright, the leader of a past generation of biblical archaeologists, was not, however, a biblical literalist, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, for example, advocating the view that the religion of the Israelites evolved from an original polytheism to a monotheism that saw God acting in history—a view fully consistent with the main views of the last two centuries of biblical criticism before him.

Professor Israel Finkelstein told The Jerusalem Post that Jewish archaeologists have found no historical or archaeological evidence to back the biblical narrative on the Exodus, the Jews' wandering in Sinai or Joshua's conquest of Canaan. On the alleged Temple of Solomon, Finkelstein said that there is no archaeological evidence to prove it really existed. Professor Yoni Mizrahi, an independent archaeologist, agreed with Israel Finkelstein.|Zahi Hawass (2007)

Other scholars dispute these claims. Avraham Faust renders in 2023 the academic consensus about the number of people from The Exodus: "most scholars agree that it was in the range of a few thousands, or even perhaps only hundreds."|Richard Elliott Friedman (2013)

In his 2001 book The Old Testament Documents: Are They Reliable and Relevant? Evangelical Old Testament scholar Walter Kaiser, Jr. included a chapter entitled, "Does Archaeology Help the Case for Reliability?". Kaiser states:

Kaiser goes on to detail case after case in which the Bible, he says, "has aided in the identification of missing persons, missing peoples, missing customs and settings." He concludes:

Collins comments upon a statement by Dever:

More recently, Lorenzo Nigro from the Italian-Palestinian Expedition to Tell es-Sultan has argued that there was some sort of settlement at the site during the 14th and 13th centuries BCE. He states that the expedition has detected Late Bronze II layers in several parts of the tell, although its top layers were heavily cut by levelling operations during the Iron Age, which explains the scarcity of 13th century materials. Nigro says that the idea that the Biblical account should have a literal archaeological correspondence is erroneous, and "any attempt to seriously identify something on the ground with biblical personages and their acts" is hazardous.

In 2023, Nigro confirmed that Jericho was occupied in the Late Bronze Age (1400–1200 BCE). During this period, the previous Middle Bronze Age city wall was refurbished by adding a mudbrick wall on top of its emerging crest.

Joshua Schachterle (2025) listed ten biblical claims which have been debunked by archaeology.

References

Sources

External links

Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Cristiana.
Archaeology in Popular Culture
Anthropology Resources on the Internet – Anthropology Resources on the Internet : a web directory with over 3000 links grouped in specialised topics.
Archaeology magazine published by the Archaeological Institute of America
Archaeology Directory – Directory of archaeological topics on the web.
The 2003- Iraq War & Archaeology Information about looting in Iraq.
The Biblical Pseudo-Archeologists Pillaging the West Bank
Excavation Sites Archaeological work and volunteer pages.