Basra () or Basrah is a port city in southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq border, the city is situated along the banks of the Shatt al-Arab that empties into the Persian Gulf. It is consistently one of the hottest cities in Iraq, with summer temperatures regularly exceeding .

Built in 636 as a military camp, Basra played an important role as a regional hub of knowledge, trade and commerce during the Islamic Golden Age and is home to the first mosque built outside the Arabian Peninsula. It was a center of the slave trade in Mesopotamia, until the Zanj rebellion in 871. Historically, Basra is one of the ports from which the fictional Sinbad the Sailor embarked on his journeys. It has experienced numerous ruling shifts. In 1258, the city was sacked by the Mongols. Basra came under Portuguese control in 1526 and later fell under the control of the Ottomans as part of the Basra Eyalet, one of the provinces comprising Ottoman Iraq. During World War I, British forces captured Basra in 1914. It was incorporated into Mandatory Iraq, under the framework Mandate for Mesopotamia after 1921, which later became the independent Kingdom of Iraq in 1932.

Since Iraq's independence, the wars Iraq has fought have made Basra an active battlefield due to its strategic location. During the Iran–Iraq War, the city was heavily shelled and besieged by Iranian forces. As a result of the war, half of the city's population fled. It suffered extensive damage again during the Gulf War due to coalition attacks. In 1991 and 1999, Basra was the site of two uprisings against Saddam Hussein. On April 6, 2003, the city was occupied by the United Kingdom and United States-led coalition, becoming the first city to be captured during the invasion of Iraq, enduring further devastation. During the war, it fell under the control of Shia factions such as Muqtada al-Sadr's Mahdi Army, who were later removed in 2008. Additionally, Basra was targeted by bombings in 2011 and 2012, and was impacted by the Islamist insurgency and the war with Islamic State from 2013 to 2017.

With its strategic location and abundant oil reserves, Basra has become one of the major industrial cities in the region. As the country’s only coastal region, along with its adjoining governorate, Basra serves as a crucial transport hub. After the Iraq war ended, Basra experienced a period of prosperity and development, with numerous reconstruction projects funded by foreign investments, including the Grand Faw Port, which have gained global attention. Today, the majority of its population consists of Arab Shia Muslims, with a large Sunni minority.

Etymology

thumb|View of Basra in , by Dutch cartographer [[Isaak de Graaf|left]]

The city has had many names throughout history, Basrah being the most common. In Arabic, the word baṣrah means "the overwatcher", which may have been an allusion to the city's origin as an Arab military base against the Sassanids. Others have argued that the name is derived from the Aramaic word basratha, meaning "place of huts, settlement".

History

thumb|Ashar Canal in 2025

Foundation by the Rashidun Caliphate (636–661)

thumb|Ashar Creek and bazaar, c. 1915

The city was founded at the beginning of the Islamic era in 636 and began as a garrison encampment for Arab tribesmen constituting the armies of the Rashidun Caliph Umar. The original site, which was a military site, is still marked by the Imam Ali Mosque about 15 kilometers SW of modern Basra. While defeating the forces of the Sassanid Empire there, the Muslim commander Utba ibn Ghazwan erected his camp on the site of an old Persian military settlement called Vaheštābād Ardašīr, which was destroyed by the Arabs. While the name Al-Basrah in Arabic can mean "the overwatcher".

In 639, Umar established this encampment as a city with five districts, and appointed Abu Musa al-Ash'ari as its first governor. The city was built in a circular plan according to the Partho-Sasanian architecture. Abu Musa led the conquest of Khuzestan from 639 to 642, and was ordered by Umar to aid Uthman ibn Abi al-As, then fighting Persia from a new, more easterly miṣr at Tawwaj. In 650, the Rashidun Caliph Uthman reorganised the Persian frontier, installed ʿAbdullah ibn Amir as Basra's governor, and put the military's southern wing under Basra's control. Ibn Amir led his forces to their final victory over Yazdegerd III, the Sassanid King of Kings. In 656, Uthman was murdered and Ali was appointed Caliph. Ali first installed Uthman ibn Hanif as Basra's governor, who was followed by ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas. Why Basra was chosen as a site for the new city remains unclear. Nevertheless, Basra overcame these natural disadvantages and rapidly grew into the second-largest city in Iraq, if not the entire Islamic world. Its role as a military encampment meant that the soldiers had to be fed, and since those soldiers were receiving government salaries, they had money to spend.

Thus, both the government and private entrepreneurs invested heavily in developing a vast agricultural infrastructure in the Basra region. Governors sometimes directly supervised these projects, but usually they simply assigned the land while most of the financing was done by private investors. This system was first reported in 962, when just 8,000 hectares of it remained in use, for the cultivation of date palms, while the rest had become desert. This represents an enormous amount of work: H.S. Nelson calculated that 45 million tons of earth were moved in total, and with his extremely high estimate of one man moving two tons of soil per day, this would have taken a decade of strenuous work by 25,000 men. The Sufyanids' first governor was Umayyad ʿAbdullah, a renowned military leader, commanding fealty and financial demands from Karballah, but poor governor. In 664, Mu'awiya I replaced him with Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan, often called "ibn Abihi" ("son of his own father"), who became infamous for his draconian rules regarding public order. On Ziyad's death in 673, his son ʿUbayd Allah ibn Ziyad became governor. In 680, Yazid I ordered ʿUbayd Allah to keep order in Kufa as a reaction to Husayn ibn Ali's popularity as the grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. 'Ubayd Allah took over the control of Kufa. ʿUbayd Allah's army was victorious; Husayn and his followers were killed and their heads were sent to Yazid as proof. Finally, Ibn al-Zubayr appointed his own brother Mus'ab. In 686, the revolutionary al-Mukhtar led an insurrection at Kufa, and put an end to ʿUbaydullah ibn Ziyad near Mosul. In 687, Musʿab defeated al-Mukhtar with the help of Kufans who Mukhtar exiled.

Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan reconquered Basra in 691, and Basra remained loyal to his governor al-Hajjaj during Ibn Ashʿath's mutiny (699–702). However, Basra did support the rebellion of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab against Yazid II during the 720s.

Abbasid Caliphate and its Golden Age: 750–1258

In the late 740s, Basra fell to as-Saffah of the Abbasid Caliphate. During the time of the Abbasids, Basra became an intellectual center and home to the elite Basra School of Grammar, the rival and sister school of the Kufa School of Grammar. Several outstanding intellectuals of the age were Basrans; Arab polymath Ibn al-Haytham, the Arab literary giant al-Jahiz, and the Sufi mystic Rabia Basri. The Zanj Rebellion by the agricultural slaves of the lowlands affected the area. In 871, the Zanj sacked Basra. In 923, the Qarmatians, an extremist Muslim sect, invaded and devastated Basra. In 1126, Zengi suppressed a revolt and in 1129, Dabis looted the Basra state treasury.

A 1200 map "on the eve of the Mongol invasions" shows the Abbasid Caliphate as ruling lower Iraq and, presumably, Basra.

The Assassin Rashid-ad-Din-Sinan was born in Basra on or between 1131 and 1135.

Mongol rule and thereafter: 1258–1500s

In 1258, the Mongols under Hulegu Khan sacked Baghdad and ended Abbasid rule. By some accounts, Basra capitulated to the Mongols to avoid a massacre. The Mamluk Bahri dynasty map (1250–1382) shows Basra as being under their area of control, and the Mongol Dominions map (1300–1405) shows Basra as being under Mongol control. In 1290 fighting erupted at the Persian Gulf port of Basra among the Genoese, between the Guelph and the Ghibelline factions.

Ibn Battuta visited Basra in the 14th century, noting it "was renowned throughout the whole world, spacious in area and elegant in its courts, remarkable for its numerous fruit-gardens and its choice fruits, since it is the meeting place of the two seas, the salt and the fresh." Ibn Battuta also noted that Basra consisted of three-quarters: the Hudayl quarter, the Banu Haram quarter, and the Iranian quarter (mahallat al-Ajam). Fred Donner adds: "If the first two reveal that Basra was still predominantly an Arab town, the existence of an Iranian quarter clearly reveals the legacy of long centuries of intimate contact between Basra and the Iranian plateau." In 1550, the local Kingdom of Basra and tribal rulers trusted the Portuguese against the Ottomans, from then on the Portuguese threatened to invoke an invasion and conquest of Basra several times. From 1595 the Portuguese acted as military protectors of Basra, and in 1624 the Portuguese assisted the Ottoman Pasha of Basra in repelling a Persian invasion. The Portuguese were granted a share of the customs revenue and freedom from tolls. From about 1625 until 1668, Basra and the Delta marshlands were in the hands of local chieftains independent of the Ottoman administration at Baghdad.

Ottoman and British rule

thumb|Iraqi girls, c. 1917|left

Basra was, for a long time, a flourishing commercial and cultural center. It was captured by the Ottoman Empire in 1668. It was fought over by Turks and Persians and was the scene of repeated attempts at resistance. From 1697 to 1701, Basra was once again under Safavid control.

The Zand dynasty under Karim Khan Zand briefly occupied Basra after a long siege in 1775–9. The Zands attempted at introducing Usuli form of Shiism on a basically Akhbari Shia Basrans. The shortness of the Zand rule rendered this untenable.

In 1911, the Encyclopaedia Britannica reported "about 4000 Jews and perhaps 6000 Christians" living in Basra Vilayet, but no Turks other than Ottoman officials. In 1884 the Ottomans responded to local pressure from the Shi'as of the south by detaching the southern districts of the Baghdad vilayet and creating a new vilayet of Basra.

thumb|Turkish prisoners passing along the bank of Ashar Creek, nearing Whiteley's Bridge, Basra 1917.|left

During World War I, British forces captured Basra from the Ottomans, occupying the city on 22 November 1914. British officials and engineers (including Sir George Buchanan) subsequently modernized Basra's harbor, which due to the increased commercial activity in the area became one of the most important ports in the Persian Gulf, developing new mercantile links with India and East Asia.

thumb|The Gate to the British War Cemetery Basra 2024.

The graves of around 5,000 men from WW1 both are at Basra War Cemetery and a further 40,000 with no known grave are commemorated at Basra Memorial. Both sites are suffering from neglect with the Commonwealth War Graves Commission having withdrawn from the country in 2007.

Modern era: 1921–2003

thumb|Model of Basra Dockyard|left

During World War II (1939–1945), Basra was an important port through which flowed much of the equipment and supplies sent to the Soviet Union by other Allies of World War II. and reached 219,167 in 1957. The University of Basrah was founded in 1964. By 1977, the population had risen to a peak population of some 1.5 million. After the 1991 Gulf War a rebellion against Saddam erupted in Basra.

As part of the Iraqi no-fly zones conflict, United States Air Force fighter jets carried out two airstrikes against Basra on 25 January 1999.

A second revolt in 1999 led to mass executions by the Iraqi government in and around Basra. Subsequently, the Iraqi government deliberately neglected the city, and much commerce was diverted to Umm Qasr. These alleged abuses are to feature amongst the charges against the former regime to be considered by the Iraq Special Tribunal set up by the Iraq Interim Government following the 2003 invasion.

Post-Saddam period: 2003–present

thumb|A U.S. soldier stands guard duty near a burning oil well in the [[Rumaila oil field, 2 April 2003]]In March through to May 2003, the outskirts of Basra were the scene of some of the heaviest fighting in the beginning of the Iraq War in 2003. The British forces, led by the 7th Armoured Brigade, captured the city on 6 April 2003.

On 19 September 2005, two undercover British Special Air Service (SAS) soldiers were stopped by the Iraqi Police at a roadblock in Basra.

The British transferred control of Basra province to the Iraqi authorities in 2007, four-and-a-half years after the invasion. A BBC survey of local residents found that 86% thought the presence of British forces since 2003 had had an overall negative effect on the province. Major-General Abdul Jalil Khalaf was appointed Police Chief by the central government with the task of taking on the militias. Talking to the BBC, he said that his determination to tackle the militia had led to almost daily assassination attempts. This was taken as sign that he was serious in opposing the militias.

In March 2008, the Iraqi Army launched a major offensive, code-named Charge of the White Knights (Saulat al-Fursan), aimed at forcing the Mahdi Army out of Basra. In April 2008, following the failure to disarm militant groups, both Major-General Abdul Jalil Khalaf and General Mohan Furaiji were removed from their positions in Basra.

thumb|Jith Al-nakhla Stadium where the [[25th Arabian Gulf Cup was hosted]]

Workers in Basra's oil industry have been involved in extensive organization and labour conflict. They held a two-day strike in August 2003, and formed the nucleus of the independent General Union of Oil Employees (GUOE) in June 2004. The union held a one-day strike in July 2005, and publicly opposes plans for privatizing the industry.

Basra was scheduled to host the 22nd Arabian Gulf Cup tournament in Basra Sports City, a newly built multi-use sports complex. In 2023, the city hosted the long scheduled 25th Arabian Gulf Cup where the Iraqi team won. The Shatt-Al-Arab and Basra waterways define the eastern and western borders of Basra, respectively. This is one of the hottest temperatures ever measured on the planet.

Effect of climate change

The city of Basra was once well known for its agriculture, but that has since altered due to rising temperatures, increased water salinity, and desertification.

Demographics

Basra Metropolitan Region comprises three towns—Basra city proper, Al-ʿAshar, and Al-Maʿqil—and several villages.

Religion

left|thumb|The Armenian Church in Basra

Basra is a major Shia city, with the old Akhbari Shiism progressively being overwhelmed by the Usuli Shiism. It is known as the "Cradle of Islamic Culture". The Sunni Muslim population is small and dropping in their percentage as more Iraqi Shias move into Basra for various job or welfare opportunities. However, a significant number of the modern community are refugees fleeing persecution from ISIS in the Nineveh Plains, Mosul, and northern Iraq. Basra is home to second highest concentration of the Mandaean community, after Baghdad. The temple is dedicated to John the Baptist, the chief prophet in Mandaeism, who also reverred by the Jews, Christians and Muslims. During the 1930s, the Jews constituted 9.8% of the total population. A 2020 study of Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation in 164 Basra women reported the most common haplogroups as H (17%), J (11%), U (9%), M (9%), and K (5%), with 19% classified as “Other”. These results reflect a complex population history, with paternal lineages showing strong affinities to ancient Mesopotamian ancestry, while maternal lineages also include a substantial proportion of native Mesopotamian haplogroups alongside broader genetic diversity linked to Basra’s historical role as a regional trade hub.

Urban Landscape

thumb|Bridges on Basra

The Old Mosque of Basra is the first mosque in Islam outside the Arabian peninsula. Sinbad Island is located in the centre of Shatt Al-Arab, near the Miinaalmakl, and extends above the Bridge Khaled and is a tourist landmark. The Muhhmad Baquir Al-Sadr Bridge, at the union of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was completed in 2017. Sayab's House Ruins is the site of the most famous home of the poet Badr Shakir al-Sayyab. There is also a statue of Sayab, one of the statues in Basra done by the artist and sculptor Nada' Kadhum, located on al-Basrah Corniche; it was unveiled in 1972. Its strategic location has made the city an important hub of trade and commerce. Basra's economy is largely dependent on the oil and heavy industry. In the early 1970s, Basra was chosen as a nodal point for Iraq's development. A number of projects were launched during this period, such as oil refineries and chemical plants. In April 2017, the Iraqi Parliament recognized Basra as Iraq's economic capital.

Iraq has the world's 4th largest oil reserves, estimated to be more . Basra has emerged as an important commercial and industrial center for the country, as the city is home to a large number of manufacturing industries ranging from petrochemical to water treatment. Furthermore, Iraq is planning to establish a large naval base in the Faw peninsula.

Sports

thumb|[[Basra International Stadium in 2013]]

thumb|The College of Pharmacy, University of Basra

The city is home to the largest sports stadium in Iraq, the Basra International Stadium, which hosts several matches of the Iraq national football team. The city is also home to sports team Al-Minaa, that uses Al-Minaa Olympic Stadium as its home venue. Its basketball division is among the elite Arab teams that compete at the Arab Club Basketball Championship.

Notable people

  • Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya, known as Rabia of Basra, early Muslim mystic
  • Ibn al-Haytham, a medieval mathematician, astronomer, and physicist.
  • Saadi Youssef, poet from Basra
  • Sean Polley, English cricketer, 1981 born in Basra
  • Reham Yacoub, female activist
  • Farid Allawerdi, composer
  • Hussein Jabur, footballer
  • Rahma Riad, singer and actress

Twin towns and sister cities

Basra is twinned with:

  • Houston, Texas, United States
  • Nishapur, Iran
  • Baku, Azerbaijan
  • Aqaba, Jordan

In fiction

  • In Voltaire's Zadig "Bassora" is the site of an international market where the hero meets representatives of all the world religions and concludes that "the world is one large family which meets at Bassora."
  • The city of Basra has a major role in H. G. Wells's 1933 future history "The Shape of Things to Come", where the "Modern State" is at the centre of a world state emerging after a collapse of civilization, and becomes in effect the capital of the world.
  • In the 1940 film The Thief of Bagdad, Ahmad and Abu flee to the city from Bagdad. Ahmad falls in love with the sultan's beautiful daughter, who is also desired by his enemy, and former Grand Vizier, Jaffar.
  • In Scott K. Andrews' "Operation Motherland", the second book in the post-apocalyptic "Afterblight Chronicles", the character Lee Keegan crash lands his plane in the streets of Basra during the opening chapter.
  • In Prince of Persia 2: The Shadow and the Flame, the protagonist travels to a city called Basra in a flying carpet, explores its ruins, and finds a throne room where he receives a vision that he is of royal lineage and is the only survivor of a massacre in the area after his parents sacrificed their lives to save him.

See also

  • List of largest cities of Iraq
  • Afro Iraqis
  • Basra International Airport
  • Dua Kumayl
  • Basra reed warbler
  • University of Basrah
  • Umm Qasr Port

Notes

References

Bibliography

  • Hallaq, Wael. The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge University Press, 2005
  • Hawting, Gerald R. The First Dynasty of Islam. Routledge. 2nd ed, 2000
  • Madelung, Wilferd. "Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr and the Mahdi" in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies 40. 1981. pp. 291–305.
  • Tillier, Mathieu. Les cadis d'Iraq et l'Etat abbasside (132/750-334/945). Institut Français du Proche-Orient, 2009
  • Vincent, Stephen. Into The Red Zone: A Journey into the Soul of Iraq. .
  • Iraq Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit Reports, Maps and Assessments of Iraq's Governorates from the UN Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit
  • Iraq Image – Basra Satellite Observation
  • 2003 Basra map (NIMA)
  • Boomtown Basra
  • Muhammad and the Spread of Islam by Sanderson Beck
  • The Textual History of the Qur'an, Arthur Jeffery, 1946
  • Codex of Abu Musa al-Ashari, Arthur Jeffery, 1936