Bamar people

The Bamar people (Burmese: ဗမာလူမျိုး, ba. ma lu myui: ; also known as Burmese people or Burmans) are a Sino-Tibetan-speaking ethnic group native to Myanmar (formerly known as Burma). The geographic homeland of the Bamar is the Irrawaddy River basin. The Bamar speak the Burmese language, which serves as the national language and lingua franca of Myanmar.

Ethnonyms

In the Burmese language, Bamar (, also transcribed Bama) and Myanmar (, also transliterated Mranma and transcribed Myanma) have historically been interchangeable endonyms. The term "Myanmar" is extant to the early 1100s, first appearing on a stone inscription, where it was used as a cultural identifier, and has continued to be used in this manner. From the onset of British colonial rule to the Japanese occupation of Burma, "Bamar" was used in Burmese to refer to both the country and its majority ethnic group. Since the country achieved independence in 1948, "Myanmar" has been officially used to designate both the nation-state, its official language and majority ethnic group, but the ethnic group was renamed to "Bamar" in 1980 by the order of General Ne Win.

Ancestral origins

The Bamar's northern origins are evidenced by the extant distribution of Burmish languages to the north of the country, and the fact that taung (), the Burmese word for 'south' also means 'mountain,' which suggests that at one point ancestors of the Bamar lived north of the mountains. Until a thousand years ago, ancestors of the Bamar and Yi were much more widespread across Yunnan, Guizhou, southern Sichuan, and northern Burma. During the Han dynasty in China, Yunnan was ruled primarily by the Burmese-Yi speaking Dian and Yelang kingdoms. During the Tang dynasty in China, Yunnan and northern Burma were ruled by the Burmese-Yi speaking Nanzhao kingdom. thumb|[[Paddy field|Wet rice cultivation is closely associated with the Bamar.]]Between the 600s and 800s, the Bamars migrated from their original homeland in Tibet to settle present-day Myanmar, establishing settlements along the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) and Salween (Thanlwin) Rivers and founding the outpost of Pagan (Bagan). The Bamar gradually settled in the fertile Irrawaddy and Salween river valleys that were home to Pyu city-states, where they established the Pagan Kingdom. Between the 1050s to 1060s, King Anawrahta founded the Pagan Empire, for the first time unifying the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery under one polity. By the 1100s, the Burmese language and culture had become dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing Pyu (formerly called Tircul) and Pali norms. Conventional Burmese chronicles state that the Pyu were assimilated into the Bamar population.

thumb|Old Bagan

By the 1200s, Bamar settlements were found as far south as Mergui (Myeik) and Tenasserim (Taninthayi), whose inhabitants continue to speak archaic Burmese dialects. Beginning in the 900s, Burmese speakers began migrating westward, crossing the Arakan Mountains and settling in what is now Rakhine State. By the 1100s, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the Pagan Empire until the 13th century. As the Bamar expanded their presence in the region following their arrival by the 800s, they likely incorporated older haplogroups including those of the Pyu and Mon. Another 2022 study found that Central and Southern Thais had a large proportion of Bamar-related ancestry (at 24% and 11% respectively), while Bamar ancestry was also detected among the Palaung and Shan groups.

thumb|Y-DNA haplogroup migration in Asia

Y-DNA (Paternal Lineages)

Y-DNA traces paternal ancestry and is inherited through the male line.The Bamar are linguistically classified as Tibeto-Burman, part of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Their Y-DNA (especially haplogroup O2 and O1b) reflects historical migration from China and Tibet, possibly via the Irrawaddy River basin.

Ethnic identity

Modern-day Bamar identity remains permeable and dynamic and is generally distinguished by language and religion, i.e., the Burmese language and Theravada Buddhism. There is considerable variation among individuals who identify as Bamar, and members of other ethnic groups, particularly the Mon, Shan, Karen, and Sino-Burmese, self-identify as Bamar to various degrees, some to the extent of complete assimilation. To this day, the Burmese language does not have precise terminology that distinguishes the European concepts of race, ethnicity and religion; the term lu-myo (, ) can reference all three. For instance, many Bamar self-identify as members of the 'Buddhist lu-myo or the 'Myanmar lu-myo,' which has posed a significant challenge for census-takers.

thumb|[[Amarapura Palace]]

thumb|[[Saya Chone's "Royal Audience," a traditional painting depicting the Mandalay Palace's royal audience hall]]

In the pre-colonial era, ethnic identity was fluid and dynamic, marked by patron-client relationships, religion, and regional origins. Consequently, many non-Bamar assimilated and adopted a Bamar identity and norms for sociopolitical purposes. Between the 1500s and 1800s, the notion of Bamar identity expanded significantly, driven by intermarriage with other communities and voluntary changes in self-identification, especially in Mon and Shan-speaking regions. Bamar identity was also more inclusive in the precolonial era, especially during 1700s when Konbaung kings embarked on major territorial expansion campaigns, to Manipur, Assam, Mrauk U, and Pegu. In 1925, all Bamar military personnel serving in the British Indian Army were discharged, and the colonial authorities adopted an exclusionary policy which stipulated that only the Chin, Kachin and Karen minorities would be targeted for military recruitment. By 1930, leading Burmese nationalist group the Dobama Asiayone had emerged, from which independence leaders like U Nu and Aung San would launch their political careers.

Government classification

The Burmese government officially classifies nine 'sub-ethnic groups' under the Bamar 'national race.' Of these nine groups, the Bamar, Dawei (Tavoyan), Myeik or Beik (Merguese), Yaw, and Yabein, all speak dialects of the Burmese language.

thumb|Men on an ox-drawn cart in [[Bagan, a historic royal capital in the Anya region, the cultural heartland of the Bamar.]]

The cultural heartland of the Bamar is called Anya (, , also spelt Anyar), which is the area adjoining the upper reaches of the Irrawaddy River, and centred around Sagaing, Magwe, and Mandalay. The Anya region () is often called the 'central dry zone' in English due to its paucity of rainfall and reliance on water irrigation.

In the 1500s, with the expansion of the Toungoo Empire, the Bamar began populating the lower stretches of the Irrawaddy River valley, including Taungoo and Prome (now Pyay), helping to disseminate the Burmese language and Bamar social customs. This pattern of migration intensified during the Konbaung dynasty, particularly among men specialised in wet rice cultivation, as women and children were generally prohibited from emigrating.

Language

thumb|The [[Myazedi inscription, dated to 1113, is the oldest surviving stone inscription of the Burmese language.]]

Burmese, a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family, is the native language of the Bamar, Burmese is a diglossic language with literary high and spoken low forms. The literary form of Burmese preserves many conservative classical forms and grammatical particles traced back to Old Burmese stone inscriptions, but are no longer used in spoken Burmese.

thumb|The Map of the distribution of the Sino-Tibetan Languages.

Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, is the primary source of Burmese loanwords. As a lingua franca, Burmese has been the source and intermediary of loanwords to other Lolo-Burmese languages and major regional languages, including Shan, Kachin, and Mon.

thumb|[[Niddesa|Mahāniddesa, a Buddhist manuscript written in the Burmese script]]

The Burmese language has a longstanding literary tradition and tradition of widespread literacy. Burmese is the fifth Sino-Tibetan language to develop a writing system, after Chinese, Tibetan, Pyu, and Tangut. The oldest surviving written Burmese document is the Myazedi inscription, which is dated to 1113. The Shan, Ahom, Khamti, Karen, and Palaung scripts are descendants of the Burmese script. These dialects differ from Standard Burmese in pronunciation and lexical choice, not grammar. For instance, Arakanese retains the sound, which had merged into the sound in standard Burmese between the 1700s and 1800s (although the former sound is still represented in modern Burmese orthography), while the Dawei and Intha dialects retain a medial that had disappeared in standard Burmese orthography by the 1100s. Charity and almsgiving are also central to Bamar society, best exemplified by Myanmar's consistent presence among the world's most generous countries according to the World Giving Index, since rankings were first introduced in 2013.

The Bamar customarily recognise Twelve Auspicious Rites, which are a series of rites of passage. Among these rites, the naming of the child, first feeding, ear-boring for girls, Buddhist ordination (shinbyu) for boys, and wedding rites are the most widely practiced today.

Calendar

The traditional Burmese calendar is a lunisolar calendar that was widely adopted throughout mainland Southeast Asia, including Siam and Lan Xang, until the late 19th century. Similar to neighbouring Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, Thingyan, which is held during the month of April, marks the beginning of the Burmese New Year. Several Buddhist full moon days, including the full moon days of Tabaung (for Magha Puja), Kason (for Vesak), Waso (start of the Buddhist lent), Thadingyut (end of the Buddhist lent), and Tazaungmon (start of Kathina), are national holidays. Full moon days also tend to coincide with numerous pagoda festivals, which typically commemorate events in a pagoda's history.

thumb|Bagan era mural painting of [[Thingyan]]

Cuisine

thumb|Laphet, served in a traditional lacquer tray called laphet ok.

White rice is the staple of the Bamar diet, reflecting a millennium of continuous rice cultivation in Burmese-speaking areas. Burmese curries, which are made with a curry paste of onions, garlic, ginger, paprika, and turmeric, alongside Burmese salads, soup, cooked vegetables, and ngapi (fermented shrimp or fish paste) traditionally accompany rice for meals. Noodles and Indian breads are also eaten. Bamar cuisine is regional due to differences in the availability of local ingredients. Anya or Upper Burmese cuisine is typified by greater use of land meats (like pork and chicken), beans and pulses, while Lower Burmese cuisine generally incorporates more seafood and fish products like ngapi.

The Bamar traditionally drink green tea, and also eat pickled tea leaves, called lahpet, which plays an important role in ritual culture. Burmese cuisine is also known for its variety of mont, a profuse variety of sweet desserts and savory snacks, including Burmese fritters. The best-known dish of Bamar origin is mohinga, rice noodles in a fish broth. It is available in most parts of the region, also considered as the national dish of Myanmar.

thumb|Buddhist monks in Mandalay receive food alms from a [[htamanè hawker during their daily alms round (ဆွမ်းလောင်းလှည့်).]]

Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. The Columbian exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, including tomatoes, chili peppers, peanuts, and potatoes. While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with Bamar religious life, exemplified in the giving of food alms (dāna), and communal feasts called satuditha and ahlu pwe (အလှူပွဲ).

Literature

thumb|A 19th-century Burmese manuscript depicting a scene from the [[Ramayana epic.]]

Burmese literature has a longstanding history, spanning religious and secular genres. Burmese chronicles and historical memoirs called ayedawbon comprise the basis of the Bamar's pre-colonial historical writing traditions.

Music

thumb|Burmese singer [[Wyne Lay plays the saung during a musical performance.]]

Traditional Bamar music is subdivided into folk and classical traditions. Folk music is typically accompanied by the hsaing waing, a musical ensemble featuring a variety of gongs, drums and other instruments, including a drum circle called pat waing, which is the ensemble's centrepiece. Classical music descends from Burmese royal court traditions. The Mahāgīta constitutes the entire corpus of Burmese classical music, which is often accompanied by a small chamber music ensemble that features a distinct set of instruments, such as a harp called saung gauk, bell and clapper, and a xylophone called pattala.

Traditional dress

thumb|A Mandalay woman dressed in a trailing htamein commonly worn in until the early 20th century.

The Bamar traditionally wear sarongs called longyi, an ankle-length cylindrical skirt that is wrapped at the waist. The modern form of the longyi (လုံချည်) was popularised during the British colonial period, and replaced the much lengthier paso (ပုဆိုး) and htamein () of the pre-colonial era. The indigenous acheik silk textile, known for its colorful wave-like patterns, is closely associated with the Bamar.

Formal attire for men includes a longyi accompanied by a jacket called taikpon (), which similar to the Manchu magua, and a cloth turban called gaung baung (). Velvet sandals called gadiba phanat (‌, also called Mandalay phanat), are worn as formal footwear by both men and women.

Bamar people of both sexes and all ages also apply thanakha, a paste ground from the fragrant wood of select tree species, on their skin, especially on their faces. In modern times, the practice is now largely confined to women, children, and young, unmarried men. The use of thanakha is not unique to the Bamar; many other Burmese ethnic groups also utilize this cosmetic. Western makeup and cosmetics have long enjoyed a popularity in urban areas. Burmese names typically incorporate a mix of native and Pali words that symbolise positive virtues, with female names tending to signify beauty, flora, and family values, and male names connoting strength, bravery, and success. For instance, a Bamar male will advance from the honorific of "Maung" to "Ko" as he approaches middle adulthood, and from "Ko" to "U' as he approaches old age. The traditional Burmese calendar includes Yahu, which is Wednesday afternoon.

{|class="wikitable"

!Day of birth

!Letters

!Monday ()

| (ka), (kha), (ga), (gha), (nga)

!Tuesday ()

| (sa), (hsa), (za), (za), (nya)

!Wednesday ()

| (la), (wa)

!Yahu ()

| (ya), (ya, ra)

!Thursday ()

| (pa), (hpa), (ba), (ba), (ma)

!Friday ()

| (tha), (ha)

!Saturday ()

| (ta), (hta), (da), (da), (na)

!Sunday ()

| (a)

Religion

thumb|Buddhist devotees converge on a [[Bodhi tree in preparation for watering, a traditional activity during the Full Moon Day of Kason.]]

thumb|Altar in Shwenandaw Monastery Mandalay

The Bamar predominantly embrace a syncretic blend of Theravada Buddhism and indigenous Burmese folk religion, the latter of which involves the recognition and veneration of spirits called nat, and pre-dates the introduction of Theravada Buddhism. These two faiths play an important role in Bamar cultural life.

thumb|A shrine of [[Shin Upagutta in Hsipaw, Shan State.]]

Theravada Buddhism is closely intertwined with Bamar identity, having been the predominant faith among Burmese speakers since the 11th century, during the Pagan dynasty. Modern-day Bamar Buddhism is typified by the observance of basic five precepts and the practice of dāna (charity), sīla (Buddhist ethics) and bhavana (meditation). Village life is centred at Buddhist monasteries called kyaung, which serve as community centres and address the community's spiritual needs. Buddhist Sabbath days called Uposatha, which follow the moon's phases (i.e., new, waxing, full, waning), are observed by more devout Buddhists.

Vestiges of Mahayana Buddhism remain popular among the Bamar, including the veneration of Shin Upagutta, Shin Thiwali, and Lawkanat (the Burmese name for Avalokiteśvara), while the influence of Hinduism can be seen in the widespread veneration of Hindu deities like Thuyathadi (the Burmese name for Saraswati) and practice of yadaya rituals. Smaller communities practice more esoteric forms of Buddhism, including weizza practices. thumb|A coconut, called on-daw, is traditionally hung on the southwest post in a house, symbolising the household guardian nat.The Bamar also profess a belief in guardian nats, particularly the veneration of Mahagiri, the household guardian nat.