Balinese Hinduism (; or ) is a distinct form of Hinduism practised primarily on the island of Bali, Indonesia. It developed through a long process of religious syncretism, combining indigenous Balinese beliefs with Hindu traditions that spread through the Indonesian archipelago from the early centuries CE. Rather than representing a direct continuation of Indian Hinduism, Balinese Hinduism constitutes a locally evolved religious system shaped by ritual practice, communal organisation, and sacred geography.
Balinese Hinduism is the majority religion in the province of Bali, where approximately 86–87% of the population identify as Hindu, amounting to around 3.8 million adherents on the island. Hinduism as practised in Bali accounts for the largest concentration of Hindus in Indonesia, a country where Hindus constitute about 1.7 % of the total population.
Balinese Hinduism emphasises ritual practice (orthopraxy) over doctrinal authority, communal religious obligation, ancestor veneration, and the maintenance of balance between the visible (sekala) and invisible (niskala) worlds. While it incorporates Hindu philosophical concepts such as dharma, karma, punarjanman, and moksha, these are interpreted through Balinese cosmology and social structures. The religion also reflects historical syncretism with Buddhist and indigenous animist and ancestral worship traditions.
In the modern period, Balinese Hinduism has been institutionally defined to meet Indonesian state requirements for religious recognition, including the articulation of a supreme divine principle, Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa. As such, Balinese Hinduism has been formally recognized by the Indonesian Government as one of the official religions practised in the country.
Indian and early Southeast Asian influence
Hindu and Buddhist concepts entered the Indonesian archipelago as early as the first century CE through long-distance trade and cultural exchange. Archeological evidence of Indian trade with Bali has been found at Sembiran village dating to this period. Stories from the Mahabharata have been traced in the Indonesian islands from the first century CE with these versions mirroring those found in Tamil Nadu. Markandeya led an early expedition to Bali with his followers, which was unsuccessful due to a widespread disease outbreak, most likely cholera. Following this setback, he returned to Java. Through spiritual reflection and the application of knowledge associated with Atharva Vedic traditions and Rasa Shastra, Markandeya developed a ritual method of water purification. He subsequently returned to Bali, where he is said to have sanctified the island’s water sources by burying the Panca Dhatu (five sacred metals) at designated locations on Mount Agung and founded temples across the island including the mother temple, Besakih.
Majapahit period and consolidation
thumb|Wringin Lawang split gate at [[Trowulan, Java. The Majapahit style heavily influenced Balinese temple design and architecture.]]
The most significant formative period for Balinese Hinduism occurred during and after the decline of the Javanese Majapahit empire in the late 14th and 15th centuries. In 1343 the Majaphit led by Prime Minister Gajah Mada conquered Bali defeating the local ruler at Bedulu. This pivotal invasion transformed Bali into a vassal state, resulting in a significant influx of Javanese Hindu culture, aristocracy, and artistry, which deeply influenced Balinese society, language, and religion for centuries.
As Islamic polities rose in Java during the late 15th century, Hindu-Javanese elites, priests, artists, and intellectuals migrated to Bali. They brought court culture, Old Javanese (Kawi) literature, temple architecture, and Brahmanical ritual traditions. As was the case in Java, Budhism in Bali was largely integrated into a dominant Hindu religion.
The most significant figure during this period was the priest Dang Hyang Nirartha who is credited with being the most influential reformer of Balinese Hinduism. He was sent to Bali by the Majapahit court in 1492 and founded the Sahivite priesthood that is now ubiquitous.
Niratha was an important promoter of the idea of moksha (freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth) and introduced into Balinese temples the padmasana shrine of the empty throne as an altar to the supreme god Acintya or Shiva. The temples on the coasts of Bali were augmented with the padmasana shrines by the dozen during Nirartha's travels.
Colonial period
During the Dutch colonial rule in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Balinese religion was increasingly categorised and studied through European frameworks. Colonial administrators and scholars often described Balinese Hinduism as a "preserved" or "classical" form of Hinduism, a characterisation that obscured its dynamic and adaptive nature. Colonial intervention disrupted royal authority and temple patronage but did not dismantle village-based religious institutions, which remained central to religious continuity.
Modern redefinition and Indonesian state recognition
Following the Indonesian independence, Balinese religious leaders undertook a process of formal reinterpretation to secure official recognition of their religion within the Indonesian state, which requires belief in a supreme deity. This led to the articulation of Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa as the supreme divine principle and the formal naming of the religion as Agama Hindu Dharma.
In 1952, the Indonesian Ministry of Religion came under the control of Islamists who severely constrained the acceptable definition of a "religion".
To accomplish this, the Balinese initiated a series of student and cultural exchange initiatives between Bali and India to help formulate the core principles behind Balinese Hinduism (Vedas, Upanishad, Puranas, Itihasa). This led to the joint petition of 1958 which demanded the Indonesian government recognize Hindu Dharma.