Anglo-Japanese Alliance

right|thumb|220px|Commemorative postcard 1905

The was an alliance between the United Kingdom and the Empire of Japan which was effective from 1902 to 1923. The treaty creating the alliance was signed at Lansdowne House in London on 30 January 1902 by British foreign secretary Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne and Japanese diplomat Hayashi Tadasu. After the preceding era of unequal treaties enforced on Asian countries including Japan, the alliance was a military pact concluded on more equal terms between a Western power and non-Western nation. It reflected the success of Meiji era reforms that modernized and industrialized Japan's economy, society and military, which enabled Japan to extract itself from the inferior position it had previously shared with other Asian countries like China, which had been subordinated to Western empires either through formal colonial acquisition or unequal treaties.

One shared motivation for the agreement was that a diplomatic alliance might deter other world powers that might otherwise encroach on British and Japanese imperial interests in Asia. For the British, the alliance marked the end of a period of "splendid isolation" while allowing for greater focus on protecting its rule over India and competing in the Anglo-German naval arms race, as part of a larger strategy to reduce imperial overcommitment and recall the Royal Navy to defend Britain. By contrast, it came at a time of Japan's ascendancy; Japan had not only successfully abrogated the unequal treaties it was previously subject to by the Western powers, but was now a fledging empire in its own right: Japan had imposed its own unequal treaty on Korea in 1876 and now controlled Formosa (Taiwan) as a colony, as Taiwan been ceded by Qing China to Japan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, after the First Sino-Japanese War. Japan also gained international prestige from the alliance and used it as a foundation for their diplomacy for two decades, although the alliance angered the United States and some British dominions, whose opinion of Japan worsened and gradually became hostile.

After Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese war and the resulting treaty that granted the Japanese control over Korea, the alliance was renewed in 1905 and 1911. In 1914, it enabled Japan's entry into World War I and capture of German-held territories in Asia. Britain grew increasingly distrustful of Japan over its Asian ambitions, and the alliance was ended with the signing of the Four-Power Treaty in 1921 and terminated upon its ratification in 1923.

Motivations and reservations

thumb|[[Tadasu Hayashi|Hayashi Tadasu, Japanese signatory of the alliance]]

thumb|left|180px|Illustration by E.Huskinson for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party c. 1905–1910.]]

thumb|upright=0.7|left|[[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne|Lord Lansdowne, the British signatory]]

The possibility of an alliance between Great Britain and Japan had been canvassed since 1895, when Britain refused to join the Triple Intervention of France, Germany and Russia against the Japanese occupation of the Liaodong Peninsula. While this single event was an unstable basis for an alliance, the case was strengthened by the support Britain had given Japan in its drive towards modernisation and their co-operative efforts to put down the Boxer Rebellion. Newspapers of both countries voiced support for such an alliance; in Britain, Francis Brinkley of The Times and Edwin Arnold of The Daily Telegraph were the driving force behind such support, while in Japan the pro-alliance mood of politician Ōkuma Shigenobu stirred the Mainichi and Yomiuri newspapers into pro-alliance advocacy. The 1894 Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation had also paved the way for equal relations and the possibility of an alliance.

In the end, the common interest truly fuelling the alliance was opposition to Russian expansion, such as the invasion of Manchuria continuing after the Boxer Rebellion. This was made clear as early as the 1890s, when the British diplomat Cecil Spring Rice identified that Britain and Japan working in concert was the only way to challenge Russian power in the region. Negotiations began when Russia began to move into China. Nevertheless, both countries had their reservations. Britain was cautious about abandoning its policy of "splendid isolation", wary of antagonizing Russia, and unwilling to act on the treaty if Japan were to attack the United States. There were factions in the Japanese government that still hoped for a compromise with Russia, including the highly powerful political figure Hirobumi Itō, who had served four terms as Prime Minister of Japan. It was thought that friendship within Asia would be more amenable to the US, which was uncomfortable with the rise of Japan as a power. Furthermore, Britain was unwilling to protect Japanese interests in Korea and likewise, the Japanese were unwilling to support Britain in India.

Hayashi and Lord Lansdowne began their discussions in July 1901, and disputes over Korea and India delayed them until November. At this point, Hirobumi Itō requested a delay in negotiations in order to attempt a reconciliation with Russia. He was mostly unsuccessful in his visit to Saint Petersburg, and Britain expressed concerns over duplicity on Japan's part, so Hayashi hurriedly re-entered negotiations in 1902. "Splendid isolation" was ended as for the first time Britain saw the need for a peace-time military alliance. It was the first alliance on equal terms between East and West. For Britain, the revision of "Splendid isolation" spurred by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, culminated in the Entente Cordiale (1904) with France and Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907.

Terms of the 1902 treaty

right|thumb|180px| [[Punch (magazine)|Punch cartoon (1905) accompanied by a quote from Rudyard Kipling that appeared in the British press after the treaty was renewed in 1905 illustrates the positive light that the alliance was seen in by the British public.]]

The treaty contained six articles:

Article 1

• The High Contracting parties, having mutually recognised the independence of China and Korea, declare themselves to be entirely uninfluenced by aggressive tendencies in either country, having in view, however, their special interests, of which those of Great Britain relate principally to China, whilst Japan, in addition to the interests which she possesses in China, is interested in a peculiar degree, politically as well as commercially and industrially in Korea, the High Contracting Parties recognise that it will be admissible for either of them to take such measures as may be indispensable in order to safeguard those interests if threatened either by the aggressive action of any other Power, or by disturbances arising in China or Korea, and necessitating the intervention of either of the High Contracting Parties for the protection of the lives and properties of its subjects.

Article 2

• Declaration of neutrality if either signatory becomes involved in war through Article 1.

Article 3

• Promise of support if either signatory becomes involved in war with more than one Power.

Article 4

• Signatories promise not to enter into separate agreements with other Powers to the prejudice of this alliance.

Article 5

• The signatories promise to communicate frankly and fully with each other when any of the interests affected by this treaty are in jeopardy.

Article 6

• Treaty to remain in force for five years and then at one years' notice, unless notice was given at the end of the fourth year.

Articles 2 and 3 were most crucial concerning war and mutual defense.

The treaty laid out an acknowledgment of Japanese interests in Korea without obligating Britain to help if a conflict arose where Japan only had one adversary. Japan was likewise not obligated to defend British interests unless there were two adversaries.

Although written using careful and clear language, the two sides understood the treaty slightly differently. Britain saw it as a gentle warning to Russia, while Japan was emboldened by it. From that point on, even those of a moderate stance refused to accept a compromise over the issue of Korea. Extremists saw it as an open invitation for imperial expansion, many in Japan having long desired a showdown with Russia. The provision on the involvement of more than one power (article 3) recalled the Triple Intervention by the Russian-French-German coalition in 1895, and strengthened Japan's hand both diplomatically and militarily against a potential European coalition.

This treaty was signed by Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne, and Count Hayashi Tadasu on 30 January, effective 31 January 1902 for five years.

Intelligence Agreements

thumb|upright=0.8|left|Major General [[Fukushima Yasumasa in 1900.]]

In May 1902, Major General Fukushima Yasumasa, who was a senior intelligence officer of the Army General Staff and the initial commander of the Japanese Army sent to China to stop the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, was sent to London to wrap up informal discussions on military intelligence cooperation. Director General of Mobilisation and Military Intelligence, Sir William Nicholson headed the British side of the negotiation, and various intelligence cooperation agreements were signed between the two in July. Fukushima represented Emperor Meiji at the coronation of King Edward VII on 9 August and stayed until September 1902 to work on the details. The existence and contents of the agreements were not made public.

1905 Revision

The alliance was renewed and expanded in 1905. This was partly prompted by Japan's gains in the Russo-Japanese War, and by the British suspicion about Russian intentions in South Asia, leading to Britain considering asking Japan to help defend India. This August 1905 revision additionally called for Japanese support of British interests in India (if Britain faced more than one adversary as stipulated in the original).

This revision was signed by Lords Lansdowne and Hayashi on 12 August 1905, effective 13 August for 10 years.

Within four months after the signing of this revision, Korea became a Japanese protectorate, and Itō Hirobumi was posted as the Resident-General to Seoul in February 1906.

1911 Revision

Although the "second" alliance in 1905 was effective for a decade, the alliance was revised earlier in 1911.

As a background, William McKinley won the 1896 United States presidential election, succeeding Grover Cleveland, who was a friend of Queen Liliʻuokalani of Hawaii. This Republican victory led to British-American rapprochement, and the annexation of the Republic of Hawaiʻi by the US, giving impetus to expansionists in the US. As a result of 1898 Spanish–American War, the Mariana Islands (including Guam) came under the United States control in December 1898. The Empire of Japan fought and lost against the US in 1899–1902, supporting the Philippines in Philippine–American War, which resulted in establishing control of the Philippine Islands by the US. The expansionistic policy of the Republican US administration was carried over to Theodore Roosevelt in 1901.<br>

Great power politics substantially changed following the Anglo-Russian entente of 1907, which settled the Russo-British Great Game; continued Japanese negotiations in the wake of the Russo-Japanese War, including a 1907 partitioning of Manchuria with Russia; and the UK's growing rivalry with the German Empire.

With the increasing Japanese and the US influence not only in the Pacific but also in global politics in this context, Britain negotiated a "third" Anglo-Japanese alliance to carefully remove the United States from the possible 'adversary' in the agreement (ARTICLE 4 and Japan agreed in return for restoring Japan's tariff autonomy. Komura Jutarō and later Prime Minister Katō Takaaki were major negotiators during this 1911 revision.

This revision was signed by Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Edward Grey and Japanese Ambassador to London, Count Katō Takaaki on 13 July, effective 14 July 1911, with a 10 year term until July 1921.

Effects

Forming alliance and rivalries

thumb|The [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji Emperor receiving the Order of the Garter in 1906, as a consequence of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.]]

The first version of the alliance was announced on 12 February 1902. In response, Russia sought to form alliances with France and Germany, which Germany declined. The French also were reluctant to become more deeply involved with Russia in east Asia. On 16 March 1902, a joint Franco-Russian declaration was issued responding to the alliance, reserving their right to intervene in and around China to defend their interests. The British and later historians found this declaration to be "anodyne", signaling that France was reconsidering its military obligations towards Russia. Britain did not officially join the Russo-Japanese War, but supported Japan in espionage, ship design, and diplomacy during the war.